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High-altitude military parachuting, or military free fall (MFF), is a method of delivering
military personnel Military personnel are members of the state's armed forces. Their roles, pay, and obligations differ according to their military branch (army, navy, marines, air force, space force, and coast guard), rank (officer, non-commissioned officer, or ...
, military equipment, and other
military A military, also known collectively as armed forces, is a heavily armed, highly organized force primarily intended for warfare. It is typically authorized and maintained by a sovereign state, with its members identifiable by their distinct ...
supplies from a
transport aircraft Transport aircraft is a broad category of aircraft that includes: * Airliners, aircraft, usually large and most often operated by airlines, intended for carrying multiple passengers or cargo in commercial service * Cargo aircraft or freighters, fix ...
at a high
altitude Altitude or height (also sometimes known as depth) is a distance measurement, usually in the vertical or "up" direction, between a reference datum and a point or object. The exact definition and reference datum varies according to the context ...
via free-fall parachute insertion. Two techniques are used: HALO (high altitude – low opening, often called a HALO jump) and HAHO (high altitude – high opening). In the HALO technique, the parachutist opens the parachute at a low altitude after free-falling for a period of time, while in the HAHO technique, the parachutist opens the parachute at a high altitude just a few seconds after jumping from the aircraft. Although HALO techniques were first developed in the 1960s for military use, in recent years HALO parachute designs have been more widely used in non-military applications, including as a form of
skydiving Parachuting, including also skydiving, is a method of transiting from a high point in the Atmosphere of Earth, atmosphere to the surface of Earth with the aid of gravity, involving the control of speed during the descent using a parachut ...
. In military operations, HALO is also used for delivering equipment, supplies, or personnel, while HAHO is generally used exclusively for personnel. In typical HALO/HAHO insertions the troops jump from altitudes between . Military parachutists will often reach a
terminal velocity Terminal velocity is the maximum velocity (speed) attainable by an object as it falls through a fluid ( air is the most common example). It occurs when the sum of the drag force (''Fd'') and the buoyancy is equal to the downward force of grav ...
of , allowing for a jump time under two minutes.


High Altitude Low Opening – HALO

The origins of the HALO technique date back to 1960 when the
United States Air Force The United States Air Force (USAF) is the Aerial warfare, air military branch, service branch of the United States Armed Forces, and is one of the eight uniformed services of the United States. Originally created on 1 August 1907, as a part ...
began conducting experiments that followed earlier work by Colonel John Stapp in the late 1940s through early 1950s on survivability for pilots ejecting at high altitude. Stapp, a research
biophysicist Biophysics is an interdisciplinary science that applies approaches and methods traditionally used in physics to study biological phenomena. Biophysics covers all scales of biological organization, from molecular to organismic and populations. ...
and medical doctor, used himself in rocket sled tests to study the effects of very high g-forces. Stapp also solved many of the problems of high-altitude flight in his earliest work for the U.S. Air Force and subjected himself to exposure to altitudes of up to . He later helped develop pressure suits and
ejection seat In aircraft, an ejection seat or ejector seat is a system designed to rescue the pilot or other crew of an aircraft (usually military) in an emergency. In most designs, the seat is propelled out of the aircraft by an explosive charge or rock ...
s, which have been used in jets ever since. As part of the experiments, on August 16, 1960, Colonel
Joseph Kittinger Joseph William Kittinger II (July 27, 1928 – December 9, 2022) served as a United States Air Force (USAF) officer from 1950 to 1978. He was a fighter pilot who earned Command Pilot status and retired as a colonel. He held the world record for ...
performed the first high-altitude jump at above the
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's surface. Kittinger's friend and United States Naval Parachute Test Jumper Joe Crotwell was also among the consultants and test jumpers of the original program. The first time the technique was used for combat was during the
Vietnam War The Vietnam War (also known by other names) was a conflict in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from 1 November 1955 to the fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975. It was the second of the Indochina Wars and was officially fought between North Vietnam a ...
in Laos by members of MACV-SOG Recon Team Florida. SEAL Teams of the
United States Navy The United States Navy (USN) is the maritime service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the eight uniformed services of the United States. It is the largest and most powerful navy in the world, with the estimated tonnage ...
expanded the HALO technique to include delivery of boats and other large items. The technique is used to
airdrop An airdrop is a type of airlift in which items including weapons, equipment, humanitarian aid or leaflets are delivered by military or civilian aircraft without their landing. Developed during World War II to resupply otherwise inaccessible tr ...
supplies, equipment, or personnel at high altitudes, where aircraft can fly above surface-to-air missile (SAM) engagement levels through enemy skies without posing a threat to the transport or load. In the event that anti-aircraft cannons are active near the drop zone, the HALO technique also minimizes the parachutist's exposure to flak. For military cargo airdrops, the rigged load is cut free and rolls out of the plane as a result of gravity. The load then proceeds to fall under canopy to a designated drop zone. In a typical HALO exercise, the parachutist will jump from the aircraft, free-fall for a period of time at
terminal velocity Terminal velocity is the maximum velocity (speed) attainable by an object as it falls through a fluid ( air is the most common example). It occurs when the sum of the drag force (''Fd'') and the buoyancy is equal to the downward force of grav ...
, and open his parachute at an altitude as low as AGL depending on the mission. The combination of high downward speed, minimal forward airspeed, and the use of only small amounts of metal helps to defeat
radar Radar is a detection system that uses radio waves to determine the distance ('' ranging''), angle, and radial velocity of objects relative to the site. It can be used to detect aircraft, ships, spacecraft, guided missiles, motor vehicles, we ...
and reduces the amount of time a parachute might be visible to ground observers, enabling a stealthy insertion.


High Altitude High Opening – HAHO

The HAHO technique is used to airdrop personnel at high altitudes when aircraft are unable to fly above enemy skies without posing a threat to the jumpers. In addition, HAHO parachute jumps are employed in the covert insertion of military personnel (generally special operations forces) into enemy territory, in circumstances where the covert nature of an operation may be compromised by the loud noise of parachutes opening at low altitude. HAHO jumps also allow a longer travel distance due to increased under-canopy time, allowing travelling distances of more than . In a typical HAHO exercise, the jumper will jump from the aircraft and deploy the parachute immediately after exiting the aircraft. The jumper will use a
compass A compass is a device that shows the cardinal directions used for navigation and geographic orientation. It commonly consists of a magnetized needle or other element, such as a compass card or compass rose, which can pivot to align itself wit ...
or
GPS The Global Positioning System (GPS), originally Navstar GPS, is a satellite-based radionavigation system owned by the United States government and operated by the United States Space Force. It is one of the global navigation satellite sy ...
device for guidance while flying for 30 or more miles (50 kilometers). The jumper must use way points and terrain features to navigate to their desired landing zone and correct their course to account for changes in wind speed and direction. If deploying as a team, the team will form up in a stack while airborne with their parachutes. Usually, the jumper in the lowest position will set the travel course and act as a guide for the other team members. HAHO insertions (excluding training) are intended to be executed at night. Whilst in the British Special Forces ( 22 SAS), due to his extensive skydiving background, Charles "Nish" Bruce was pivotal in the original trials and development of the HAHO tactic now routinely used as a conflict insert for special forces.John Geddes, ''Highway to Hell (An SAS Veteran's Bloody Account on the Private Army in Iraq)'' – Arrow Books, Random House, 2007, page 180. .


Military Free-Fall – MFF

In the United States, military personnel who intend to participate in high-altitude military operations must undergo intense training with strict rules and regulations. Military free-fall is one of the most dangerous and physically demanding skills in special operations. MFF operations are typically done under the cover of darkness, so as to hide the operator's presence from opposing forces. The transition into being military free-fall certified starts with successfully completing the static-line certification at Fort Bragg, North Carolina. The military free-fall course is also instructed at Fort Bragg and spans four weeks. The first week of the course students will learn how to stabilize their body in flight in a specially constructed vertical wind tunnel.


Health risks

All types of parachuting techniques are dangerous, but HALO/HAHO carry special risks. At high altitudes (greater than ), the partial pressure of oxygen in the
Earth's atmosphere The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases, known collectively as air, retained by Earth's gravity that surrounds the planet and forms its planetary atmosphere. The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by creating pressure allowing fo ...
is low. Oxygen is required for human respiration and lack of pressure can lead to hypoxia. Also, rapid ascent in the jump aircraft without all nitrogen flushed from the bloodstream can lead to
decompression sickness Decompression sickness (abbreviated DCS; also called divers' disease, the bends, aerobullosis, and caisson disease) is a medical condition caused by dissolved gases emerging from solution as bubbles inside the body tissues during decompressio ...
, also known as caisson disease or "the bends". A typical HAHO exercise will require a pre-breathing period (30–45 minutes) prior to jump where the jumper breathes 100% oxygen in order to flush nitrogen from their bloodstream. Also, a HAHO jumper will employ an oxygen bottle during the jump. Danger can come from medical conditions affecting the jumper. For example, cigarette smoking, alcohol and drug use (including
antihistamine Antihistamines are drugs which treat allergic rhinitis, common cold, influenza, and other allergies. Typically, people take antihistamines as an inexpensive, generic (not patented) drug that can be bought without a prescription and provid ...
s, sedatives, and analgesics),
anemia Anemia or anaemia (British English) is a blood disorder in which the blood has a reduced ability to carry oxygen due to a lower than normal number of red blood cells, or a reduction in the amount of hemoglobin. When anemia comes on slowly, t ...
,
carbon monoxide Carbon monoxide (chemical formula CO) is a colorless, poisonous, odorless, tasteless, flammable gas that is slightly less dense than air. Carbon monoxide consists of one carbon atom and one oxygen atom connected by a triple bond. It is the simple ...
, fatigue and
anxiety Anxiety is an emotion which is characterized by an unpleasant state of inner turmoil and includes feelings of dread over anticipated events. Anxiety is different than fear in that the former is defined as the anticipation of a future threat wh ...
can all lead to a jumper being more susceptible to hypoxia. In addition, problems with the oxygen bottle and during the changeover from the pre-breather to the oxygen bottle can result in the return of nitrogen to the jumper's bloodstream and, therefore, an increased likelihood of decompression sickness A jumper suffering from hypoxia may lose consciousness and therefore be unable to open his parachute. A jumper suffering from decompression sickness may die or become permanently disabled from nitrogen bubbles in the bloodstream, which causes inflammation of joints. Another risk is from the low ambient temperatures prevalent at higher altitudes. At an altitude of , the jumper faces temperatures of , and can experience
frostbite Frostbite is a skin injury that occurs when exposed to extreme low temperatures, causing the freezing of the skin or other tissues, commonly affecting the fingers, toes, nose, ears, cheeks and chin areas. Most often, frostbite occurs in the ha ...
. However, HAHO jumpers generally wear
polypropylene Polypropylene (PP), also known as polypropene, is a thermoplastic polymer used in a wide variety of applications. It is produced via chain-growth polymerization from the monomer propylene. Polypropylene belongs to the group of polyolefins a ...
knit undergarments and other warm clothing under a windproof shell to prevent this. HALO carries the additional risk that if the parachute fails to deploy or lines become tangled, there is less time to resort to the reserve (back-up parachute) or untangle the lines. A retrospective study pinpointed 134 parachutists with 141 injuries. All these injuries were a result of members in HALO training. The most common injuries found were fractures, which accounted for 35% of the total injuries. Muscle sprains accounted for 34.7% of injuries. Other proportionally higher injuries were dislocations at 9.9%, contusions at 7.8%, and cuts and lacerations at 4.9%. The article also noted that two deaths occurred while the study was being conducted.


Example of use

* The first combat high-altitude jump took place during the
Vietnam War The Vietnam War (also known by other names) was a conflict in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from 1 November 1955 to the fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975. It was the second of the Indochina Wars and was officially fought between North Vietnam a ...
in November 1970, when a six-man team called SOG Recon Team Florida parachuted from into Laos. * BJ Worth, a professional stuntman doubling as
James Bond The ''James Bond'' series focuses on a fictional British Secret Service agent created in 1953 by writer Ian Fleming, who featured him in twelve novels and two short-story collections. Since Fleming's death in 1964, eight other authors have ...
, is shown in the 1997 film ''
Tomorrow Never Dies ''Tomorrow Never Dies'' is a 1997 spy film, the eighteenth in the ''James Bond'' series produced by Eon Productions and the second to star Pierce Brosnan as fictional MI6 agent James Bond. Directed by Roger Spottiswoode from a screenplay ...
'' performing a HALO jump. * In November 2001, a small team of U.S. troops from the 75th Ranger Regiment
Regimental Reconnaissance Company The 75th Ranger Regiment's Regimental Reconnaissance Company (formerly known as Regimental Reconnaissance Detachment, or RRD) is an elite special operations force that has been a member of Joint Special Operations Command since 2005. The unit is ...
freefall parachuted into
Afghanistan Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan,; prs, امارت اسلامی افغانستان is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central Asia and South Asia. Referred to as the Heart of Asia, it is bordere ...
in order to establish a landing strip. * In 2002,
United States Air Force Pararescue Pararescuemen (also known as PJs) are United States Air Force Special Operations Command (AFSOC) and Air Combat Command (ACC) operators tasked with recovery and medical treatment of personnel in humanitarian and combat environments. These speci ...
jumpers conducted a HALO jump in Afghanistan as a means of reaching a gravely wounded member of the
Australian Special Air Service The Special Air Service Regiment, officially abbreviated SASR though commonly known as the SAS, is a special forces unit of the Australian Army. Formed in 1957, it was modelled on the Special Air Service, British SAS sharing the motto, "Who ...
who was stranded in a minefield. * Free fall parachute insertions were utilized during Operation Iraqi Freedom, as a means of bypassing enemy early warning systems. * In 2009, during the rescue of Captain Richard Phillips off the coast of
Somalia Somalia, , Osmanya script: 𐒈𐒝𐒑𐒛𐒐𐒘𐒕𐒖; ar, الصومال, aṣ-Ṣūmāl officially the Federal Republic of SomaliaThe ''Federal Republic of Somalia'' is the country's name per Article 1 of thProvisional Constituti ...
, a team of U.S. Navy SEALs carried out a nighttime HALO jump into the sea in order to reach the USS ''Bainbridge'' which was towing a lifeboat containing Philips' hostage takers. * In 2012, U.S. Navy SEALs used the technique to insert into
Somalia Somalia, , Osmanya script: 𐒈𐒝𐒑𐒛𐒐𐒘𐒕𐒖; ar, الصومال, aṣ-Ṣūmāl officially the Federal Republic of SomaliaThe ''Federal Republic of Somalia'' is the country's name per Article 1 of thProvisional Constituti ...
to rescue two hostages being held by pirates near the town of Adow. *
Tom Cruise Thomas Cruise Mapother IV (born July 3, 1962), known professionally as Tom Cruise, is an American actor and producer. One of the world's highest-paid actors, he has received various accolades, including an Honorary Palme d'Or and three Go ...
became the first actor to perform a HALO jump on camera for the 2018 film '' Mission: Impossible – Fallout''. * In April 2020, military personnel from the
Russian Airborne Forces The Russian Airborne Forces (russian: Воздушно-десантные войска России, ВДВ, Vozdushno-desantnye voyska Rossii, VDV) are the airborne forces branch of the Russian Armed Forces. It was formed in 1992 from units of ...
, by the order of the
Minister of Defence A defence minister or minister of defence is a cabinet official position in charge of a ministry of defense, which regulates the armed forces in sovereign states. The role of a defence minister varies considerably from country to country; in som ...
, Sergey Shoygu, performed the world's first HALO
paradrop A parachute is a device used to slow the motion of an object through an atmosphere by creating drag or, in a ram-air parachute, aerodynamic lift. A major application is to support people, for recreation or as a safety device for aviators, who ...
from the lower border of the
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stratosphere. The Russian commando group used "next-generation special-purpose parachute system", military tested oxygen equipment, navigation devices, special equipment, and uniforms while jumping from a high-flying transport plane, the
Il-76 The Ilyushin Il-76 (russian: Илью́шин Ил-76; NATO reporting name: Candid) is a multi-purpose, fixed-wing, four-engine turbofan strategic airlifter designed by the Soviet Union's Ilyushin design bureau. It was first planned as a comme ...
over the island of
Alexandra Land Alexandra Land (russian: Земля Александры, ''Zemlya Aleksandry'') is a large island located in Franz Josef Land, Arkhangelsk Oblast, Russian Federation. Not counting detached and far-lying Victoria Island, it is the westernmost ...
located in
Franz Josef Land Franz Josef Land, Frantz Iosef Land, Franz Joseph Land or Francis Joseph's Land ( rus, Земля́ Фра́нца-Ио́сифа, r=Zemlya Frantsa-Iosifa, no, Fridtjof Nansen Land) is a Russian archipelago in the Arctic Ocean. It is inhabited on ...
archipelago.


List of HALO/HAHO capable units


See also

*
Project Excelsior Project Excelsior was a series of parachute jumps made by Joseph Kittinger of the United States Air Force in 1959 and 1960 from helium balloons in the stratosphere. The purpose was to test the Beaupre multi-stage parachute system intended to be ...
*
John Stapp Colonel John Paul Stapp (July 11, 1910 – November 13, 1999), M.D., Ph.D., was an American career U.S. Air Force officer, flight surgeon, physician, biophysicist, and pioneer in studying the effects of acceleration forces on humans. He was a ...
* Billy Waugh * List of paratrooper forces * Military Freefall Parachutist Badge


Notes


References

* Black, Mike
HALO jump over Yuma Proving Ground, AZ
U.S. Marine Corps. United States of America. * Divine, Mark (2004)
Navy SEALs Air Operations – Free Fall: HALO/HAHO
( used with permission). U.S. Navy SEAL 1989 to present. Founder o
NavySEALs.com
* McKenna, Pat (July 1997)

'' Airman Magazine''. U.S. Air Force. United States of America. * McManners, Hugh (2003), Ultimate Special Forces, pub Dorling Kindersley * U.S. Army Infantry School (November 1, 1995)
Lesson 3: Airlift Requests and Personnel Used in Airborne
''Fundamentals of Airborne Operations, Edition B''. U.S. Army Infantry School. US Army. United States of America. * U.S. DOD (June 5, 2003)
US DOD Dictionary of Military Terms: Joint Acronyms and Abbreviations
U.S. Department of Defense. United States of America. * https://web.archive.org/web/20100106010349/http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/aureview/1986/nov-dec/boyd.html * http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/ops/airborne-halo-haho.htm


External links

* {{Internet Archive short film, id=gov.dod.dimoc.26961, name=STAFF FILM REPORT 66-12A (1966) Military parachuting Airborne warfare