Guan Yu (; ),

courtesy name A courtesy name (), also known as a style name, is a name bestowed upon one at adulthood in addition to one's given name. This practice is a tradition in the East Asian cultural sphere, including China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam.Ulrich Theob ...

Yunchang, was a Chinese military general serving under the warlord

Liu Bei Liu Bei (, ; ; 161 – 10 June 223), courtesy name Xuande (), was a warlord in the late Eastern Han dynasty who founded the state of Shu Han in the Three Kingdoms period and became its first ruler. Although he was a distant relative of the ...

during the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. Along with

Zhang Fei Zhang Fei () (died July or August 221 AD), courtesy name Yide, was a military general serving under the warlord Liu Bei in the late Eastern Han dynasty and early Three Kingdoms period of China. Zhang Fei and Guan Yu, who were among the earlie ...

, he shared a brotherly relationship with Liu Bei and accompanied him on most of his early exploits. Guan Yu played a significant role in the events leading up to the end of the Han dynasty and the establishment of Liu Bei's state of Shu Han during the

Three Kingdoms The Three Kingdoms () from 220 to 280 AD was the tripartite division of China among the dynastic states of Cao Wei, Shu Han, and Eastern Wu. The Three Kingdoms period was preceded by the Eastern Han dynasty and was followed by the West ...

period. While he is remembered for his loyalty towards Liu Bei, he is also known for repaying Cao Cao's kindness by slaying

Yan Liang Yan Liang () (died 200) was a military general serving under the warlord Yuan Shao during the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. He was slain by Guan Yu at the Battle of Boma. Life Little is known about Yan Liang's life. The only historic ...

, a general under Cao Cao's rival

Yuan Shao Yuan Shao (, ; died 28 June 202), courtesy name Benchu (), was a Chinese military general, politician, and warlord who lived in the late Eastern Han dynasty. He occupied the northern territories of China during the civil wars that occurred t ...

, at the

Battle of Boma The Battle of Boma or Battle of Baima was the first of a series of battles that led to the decisive Battle of Guandu between the warlords Yuan Shao and Cao Cao in northern China in the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. Although Cao Cao won the ...

. After Liu Bei gained control of

Yi Province Yizhou (益州), Yi Province or Yi Prefecture, was a '' zhou'' (province) of ancient China. Its capital city was Chengdu.de Crespigny, p. 256. During the Han dynasty, it included the commanderies Hanzhong, Ba, Guanghan, Shu, Wenshan, Jianwei, ...

in 214, Guan Yu remained in Jing Province to govern and defend the area for about seven years. In 219, while he was away fighting Cao Cao's forces at the

Battle of Fancheng The Battle of Fancheng or the Battle of Fan Castle was fought between the warlords Liu Bei and Cao Cao in 219 in the late Eastern Han dynasty. It is named after Fancheng in present-day Xiangyang, Hubei, a fortress that played a significant ro ...

, Liu Bei's ally Sun Quan broke the Sun–Liu alliance and sent his general Lü Meng to conquer Liu Bei's territories in Jing Province. By the time Guan Yu found out about the loss of Jing Province after his defeat at Fancheng, it was too late. He was subsequently captured in an ambush by Sun Quan's forces and executed. Guan Yu's life was lionised and his achievements glorified to such an extent after his death that he was deified during the Sui dynasty. Through generations of storytelling, culminating in the 14th-century historical novel ''

Romance of the Three Kingdoms ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' () is a 14th-century historical novel attributed to Luo Guanzhong. It is set in the turbulent years towards the end of the Han dynasty and the Three Kingdoms period in Chinese history, starting in 184 AD ...

'', his deeds and moral qualities have been given immense emphasis, making Guan Yu one of East Asia's most popular paradigms of loyalty and righteousness. He is still worshipped by many Chinese people today. In religious devotion he is reverentially called the "Emperor Guan" (''Guān Dì'') or "Lord Guan" (''Guān Gōng''). He is a deity worshipped in

Chinese folk religion Chinese folk religion, also known as Chinese popular religion comprehends a range of traditional religious practices of Han Chinese, including the Chinese diaspora. Vivienne Wee described it as "an empty bowl, which can variously be filled ...

, popular

Confucianism Confucianism, also known as Ruism or Ru classicism, is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China. Variously described as tradition, a philosophy, a religion, a humanistic or rationalistic religion, a way of governing, or a ...

Taoism Taoism (, ) or Daoism () refers to either a school of philosophical thought (道家; ''daojia'') or to a religion (道教; ''daojiao''), both of which share ideas and concepts of Chinese origin and emphasize living in harmony with the '' Ta ...

, and

Chinese Buddhism Chinese Buddhism or Han Buddhism ( zh, s=汉传佛教, t=漢傳佛教, p=Hànchuán Fójiào) is a Chinese form of Mahayana Buddhism which has shaped Chinese culture in a wide variety of areas including art, politics, literature, philosophy, ...

, and small shrines to him are almost ubiquitous in traditional Chinese shops and restaurants.

Historical sources

The authoritative historical source on Guan Yu's life is the '' Records of the Three Kingdoms'' (''Sanguozhi'') written by

Chen Shou Chen Shou (; 233–297), courtesy name Chengzuo (), was a Chinese historian, politician, and writer who lived during the Three Kingdoms period and Jin dynasty of China. Chen Shou is most known for his most celebrated work, the '' Records of ...

in the third century. During the fifth century, Pei Songzhi annotated the ''Sanguozhi'' by incorporating information from other sources to Chen Shou's original work and adding his personal comments. Some alternative texts used in the annotations to Guan Yu's biography include: ''Shu Ji'' (''Records of Shu''), by Wang Yin; ''Wei Shu'' (''Book of Wei''), by Wang Chen,

Xun Yi Xun Yi (early 200s - 19 June 274), courtesy name Jingqian, was a Chinese politician of the state of Cao Wei in the Three Kingdoms period of China. After the fall of Wei, he continued serving under the Jin dynasty, which replaced Wei in 266. He ...

and

Ruan Ji Ruan Ji (; 210–263), courtesy name Sizong (), was a Chinese musician and poet who lived in the late Eastern Han dynasty and Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. He was one of the Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove. The guqin melody ''Jiukuang ...

; ''Jiang Biao Zhuan'', by Yu Pu; ''Fu Zi'', by

Fu Xuan Fu Xuan (217–278), courtesy name Xiuyi, was a Chinese historian, poet, and politician who lived in the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period and later under the Jin dynasty. He was one of the most prolific authors of ''fu'' poet ...

; ''Dianlue'', by

Yu Huan Yu Huan ( third century) was a historian of the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period of China. Life Yu Huan was from Jingzhao Commandery, which is around present-day Xi'an, Shaanxi.''Shitong'' vol. 12. He is best known for writin ...

; ''Wu Li'' (''History of Wu''), by Hu Chong; and ''

Chronicles of Huayang The ''Chronicles of Huayang'' or ''Huayang Guo Zhi'' () is the oldest extant gazetteer of a region of China. It was compiled by Chang Qu during the Jin Dynasty. It contains roughly 110,000 characters. Its contents comprise history, geography an ...

'', by

Chang Qu Chang Qu () (c. 291 – c. 361 CE) was a 4th-century Chinese historian of the Cheng Han dynasty, who wrote the ''Chronicles of Huayang'' or ''Records of the States South of Mount Hua Mount Hua () is a mountain located near the city of Huayi ...

Physical appearance

No explicit descriptions of Guan Yu's physical appearance exist in historical records, however the ''Sanguozhi'' recorded that

Zhuge Liang Zhuge Liang ( zh, t=諸葛亮 / 诸葛亮) (181 – September 234), courtesy name Kongming, was a Chinese statesman and military strategist. He was chancellor and later regent of the state of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms period. He is ...

once referred to Guan Yu as having a "peerless beard". Traditionally, Guan Yu is portrayed as a red-faced warrior with a long, lush beard. The idea of his red face may have been derived from a description of him in Chapter 1 of the 14th-century historical novel ''

'', where the following passage appears: Alternatively, the idea of his red face could have been borrowed from opera representation, where red faces represented loyalty and righteousness. In illustrations of ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'', Guan Yu is traditionally depicted wearing a green robe over his body armour. Supposedly, Guan Yu's weapon was a guan dao named

Green Dragon Crescent Blade The Green Dragon Crescent Blade () is a legendary weapon wielded by the Chinese general Guan Yu in the 14th-century historical novel ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms''. It is a guandao, a type of traditional Chinese weapon. It is also sometimes ...

, which resembled a podao,

glaive A glaive (or glave) is a European polearm, consisting of a single-edged blade on the end of a pole. It is similar to the Japanese naginata, the Chinese guandao, the Korean woldo, and the Russian sovnya. Overview Typically, the blade is arou ...

, or

naginata The ''naginata'' (, ) is a pole weapon and one of several varieties of traditionally made Japanese blades (''nihontō''). ''Naginata'' were originally used by the samurai class of feudal Japan, as well as by ashigaru (foot soldiers) and sōhei ...

and was said to weigh 82 catties (about 49.2 kg or 108.4674 lbs).

Early life and career

Guan Yu was from Xie County (),

Hedong Commandery Hedong Commandery () was a historical region in the Qin and Han dynasties of ancient China. Hedong was located to the east of the Yellow River in Shanxi (around present-day Yuncheng). History Hedong Commandery was established by the Qin state ...

, which is present-day

Yuncheng Yuncheng is the southernmost prefecture-level city in Shanxi province, People's Republic of China. It borders Linfen and Jincheng municipalities to the north and east, and Henan (Luoyang and Jiyuan to the east, Sanmenxia to the south) and Shaan ...

, Shanxi. His original

was Changsheng ().() ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 36. He was very studious, and was interested in the ancient history book '' Zuo zhuan'' and could fluently recite lines from it.”() ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 54.() ''Jiang Biao Zhuan'' annotation in ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 36. He fled from his hometown for unknown reasons and went to

Zhuo Commandery Zhuo Commandery ( zh, 涿郡) or Fanyang Commandery ( zh, 范陽郡) was a commandery in imperial China from Han dynasty to Tang dynasty, located in modern Hebei and Beijing. Han dynasty Zhuo Commandery was established during Emperor Gao of Han's ...

. When the

Yellow Turban Rebellion The Yellow Turban Rebellion, alternatively translated as the Yellow Scarves Rebellion, was a peasant revolt in China against the Eastern Han dynasty. The uprising broke out in 184 CE during the reign of Emperor Ling. Although the main rebelli ...

broke out in the 180s, Guan Yu and

joined a volunteer militia formed by

, and they assisted a colonel Zou Jing in suppressing the revolt.() ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 36.() ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 32. Guan Yu and Zhang Fei were known as stalwart and strong men; which made them talented fighters. When Liu Bei was appointed as the Minister () of Pingyuan, Guan Yu and Zhang Fei were appointed as Majors of Separate Command (), each commanding detachments of soldiers under Liu Bei. Liu Bei cherished them as if they were his own brothers and the three of them were as close as brothers to the point of sharing the same room, sleeping on the same mat and eating from the same pot. Zhang Fei and Guan Yu protected Liu Bei whenever there were large crowds of people and also stood guard beside him when he sat down at meetings all day long. They followed him on his exploits and were always ready to face any danger and hardship.() ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 36. And for their military prowess were appraised as "enemy of ten-thousand".”() ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14. Guan Yu was noted for his kindness towards his soldiers and fealty to Liu Bei akin to family, but had no respect for the gentry and treated them without courtesy.() ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14.()''Sanguozhi'' vol. 36.()''Sanguozhi'' vol. 45.

Short service under Cao Cao

Background

and his men followed Cao Cao back to the imperial capital Xu after their victory over

Lü Bu Lü Bu () (died 7 February 199), courtesy name Fengxian, was a Chinese military general, politician, and warlord who lived during the late Eastern Han dynasty of Imperial China. Originally a subordinate of a minor warlord Ding Yuan, he betr ...

at the

Battle of Xiapi The Battle of Xiapi was fought between the forces of Lü Bu against the allied armies of Cao Cao and Liu Bei from the winter of 198 to 7 February 199 towards the end of the Eastern Han dynasty in China. The battle concluded with victory for C ...

in 198. About a year later, Liu Bei and his followers escaped from Xu under the pretext of helping Cao Cao lead an army to attack

Yuan Shu Yuan Shu () (died July or August 199), courtesy name Gonglu, was a Chinese military general, politician, and warlord who lived during the late Eastern Han dynasty. He rose to prominence following the collapse of the Han central government in 189 ...

. Liu Bei went to

Xu Province Xuzhou as a historical toponym refers to varied area in different eras. Ordinarily, it was a reference to the one of the Nine Provinces which modern Xuzhou inherited. History Pre-Qin era Xuzhou or Xu Province was one of the Nine Provinces of ...

, killed the provincial inspector Che Zhou (), and seized control of the province. He moved to Xiaopei and left Guan Yu in charge of the provincial capital

Xiapi Pizhou () is a county-level city under the administration of Xuzhou, Jiangsu province, China. As of 2006 it had a population of 163,000; it borders the Shandong prefecture-level cities of Linyi to the northeast and Zaozhuang to the northwest. His ...

.() ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 36.() ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 32.() ''Wei Shu'' annotation in ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 36. In 200, Cao Cao led his forces to attack Liu Bei, defeated him and retook Xu Province. Liu Bei fled to northern China and found refuge under Cao Cao's rival

, while Guan Yu was captured by Cao Cao's forces and brought back to Xu. Cao Cao treated Guan Yu respectfully and asked

Emperor Xian Emperor Xian of Han (2 April 181 – 21 April 234), personal name Liu Xie (劉協), courtesy name Bohe, was the 14th and last emperor of the Eastern Han dynasty in China. He reigned from 28 September 189 until 11 December 220. Liu Xie was a so ...

to appoint Guan Yu as a Lieutenant-General ().() ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 36.() ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 32.

Battle of Boma

Later that year, Yuan Shao sent his general

to lead an army to attack Cao Cao's garrison at Boma (; near present-day Hua County,

Henan Henan (; or ; ; alternatively Honan) is a landlocked province of China, in the central part of the country. Henan is often referred to as Zhongyuan or Zhongzhou (), which literally means "central plain" or "midland", although the name is al ...

), which was defended by Liu Yan (). Cao Cao sent

Zhang Liao Zhang Liao () (169–222), courtesy name Wenyuan, was a Chinese military general serving under the warlord Cao Cao in the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. He served briefly in the state of Cao Wei, founded by Cao Cao's successor Cao Pi, in the ...

and Guan Yu to lead the vanguard to engage the enemy. In the midst of battle, Guan Yu recognised Yan Liang's parasol so he charged towards Yan Liang, decapitated him and returned with his head. Yan Liang's men could not stop him. With Yan Liang's death, the siege on Boma was lifted. On Cao Cao's recommendation, Emperor Xian awarded Guan Yu the peerage of "Marquis of Hanshou Village" ().() ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 36.

Leaving Cao Cao

Although Cao Cao admired Guan Yu's character, he also sensed that Guan Yu had no intention of serving under him for long. He told Zhang Liao, "Why don't you make use of your friendship with Guan Yu to find out what he wants?" When Zhang Liao asked him, Guan Yu replied, "I am aware that Lord Cao treats me very generously. However, I have also received many favours from General Liu and I have sworn to follow him until I die. I cannot break my oath. I will leave eventually, so maybe you can help me convey my message to Lord Cao." Zhang Liao did so, and Cao Cao was even more impressed with Guan Yu.() ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 36. The ''Fu Zi'' gave a slightly different account of this incident. It recorded that Zhang Liao faced a dilemma of whether or not to convey Guan Yu's message to Cao Cao: if he did, Cao Cao might execute Guan Yu; if he did not, he would be failing in his service to Cao Cao. He sighed, "Lord Cao is my superior and he is like a father to me, while Guan Yu is like a brother to me." He eventually decided to tell Cao Cao. Cao Cao said, "A subject who serves his lord but doesn't forget his origins is truly a man of righteousness. When do you think he will leave?" Zhang Liao replied, "Guan Yu has received favours from Your Excellency. He will most probably leave after he has repaid your kindness."() ''Fu Zi'' annotation in ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 36. After Guan Yu slew Yan Liang and lifted the siege on Baima, Cao Cao knew that he would leave soon so he gave Guan Yu greater rewards. Guan Yu sealed up all the gifts he received from Cao Cao, wrote a farewell letter, and headed towards Yuan Shao's territory to find Liu Bei. Cao Cao's subordinates wanted to pursue Guan Yu, but Cao Cao stopped them and said, "He's just doing his duty to his lord. There's no need to pursue him."() ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 36. Pei Songzhi commented on this as follows: "Cao Cao admired Guan Yu's character even though he knew that Guan Yu would not remain under him. He did not send his men to pursue Guan Yu when Guan Yu left, so as to allow Guan Yu to fulfil his allegiance (to Liu Bei). If he was not as magnanimous as a great warlord should be, how would he allow this to happen? This was an example of Cao Cao's goodness."() Pei Songzhi's annotation in ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 36.

Returning to Liu Bei

When Cao Cao and

clashed at the

Battle of Guandu The Battle of Guandu was fought between the warlords Cao Cao and Yuan Shao in 200 AD in the late Eastern Han dynasty. Cao Cao's decisive victory against Yuan Shao's numerically superior forces marked the turning point in their war. The victo ...

in 200, Yuan sent

to contact Liu Pi (), a Yellow Turban rebel chief in

Runan Runan County () is a counties of China, county under the administration of the prefecture-level city of Zhumadian, in the southeast of Henan, Henan Province, China. History In ancient times, this area was called "the middle of the world" (), ...

(), and assist Liu Pi in attacking the imperial capital Xu while Cao Cao was away at Guandu. Guan Yu reunited with Liu Bei around this time. Liu Bei and Liu Pi were defeated by Cao Cao's general

Cao Ren Cao Ren () (168 – 6 May 223), courtesy name Zixiao, was a military general serving during the late Eastern Han dynasty of China under the warlord Cao Cao, who was also his older second cousin. He continued serving in the state of Cao Wei � ...

, after which Liu Bei returned to Yuan Shao. Liu Bei secretly planned to leave Yuan Shao, so he pretended to persuade Yuan Shao to form an alliance with

Liu Biao Liu Biao () () (151 – September 208), courtesy name Jingsheng, was a Chinese military general, politician, and warlord who lived in the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. He is best known for serving as the Governor of Jing Province (coveri ...

, the Governor of Jing Province. Yuan Shao sent Liu Bei to contact another rebel leader, Gong Du (), in Runan, where they gathered a few thousand soldiers. Cao Cao turned back and attacked Runan after scoring a decisive victory over Yuan Shao at Guandu, and he defeated Liu Bei in Runan. Liu Bei fled south and found shelter under Liu Biao, who put him in charge of

Xinye Xinye () is one of the counties of Nanyang that lies in the southwest of Henan province, China. To the south lies the prefecture-level city of Xiangyang in Hubei province, to the east is Tanghe County and to the west is the county-level city of ...

at the northern border of Jing Province. Guan Yu followed Liu Bei to Xinye.() ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 32.() ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 36.

Battle of Red Cliffs and aftermath

died in 208 and was succeeded by his younger son, Liu Cong, who surrendered Jing Province to Cao Cao when the latter started a campaign that year with the aim of wiping out opposing forces in southern China.

evacuated Xinye together with his followers and they headed towards Xiakou, which was guarded by Liu Biao's elder son Liu Qi and independent of Cao Cao's control. Along the journey, Liu Bei divided his party into two groups – one led by Guan Yu which would sail along the river towards Jiangling; another led by Liu Bei which would travel on land. Cao Cao sent 5,000 elite cavalry to pursue Liu Bei's group and they caught up with them at Changban, where the

Battle of Changban The Battle of Changban was fought between the warlords Cao Cao and Liu Bei in October 208 in the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. The battle took place at Changban (長坂; south of present-day Duodao District, Jingmen, Hubei). Background ...

broke out. Liu Bei and his remaining followers managed to escape from Cao Cao's forces and reach Han Ford (), where Guan Yu's group picked them up and they sailed to Xiakou together.() ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 32.() ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 36. In 208, Liu Bei allied with Sun Quan and they defeated Cao Cao at the decisive Battle of Red Cliffs. Cao Cao retreated north after his defeat and left

behind to defend Jing Province.() ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 36. During the Battle of Jiangling, Guan Yu was stationed at the northern routes to block Cao Ren's supply lines via infiltration. Li Tong engaged Guan Yu, attempting to support Cao Ren's forces, but died from illness during the campaign.(刘备与周瑜围曹仁於江陵，别遣关羽绝北道。通率众击之，下马拔鹿角入围，且战且前，以迎仁军，勇冠诸将。通道得病薨，时年四十二。) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 18. Xu Huang and Man Chong also engaged with Guan Yu in Hanjin() in order support Cao Ren against Zhou Yu.(從征荊州，別屯樊，討中廬、臨沮、宜城賊。又與滿寵討關羽於漢津，與曹仁擊周瑜於江陵。) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 17. Finally, Yue Jin, stationed in Xiangyang, defeated Guan Yu and Su Fei () and drove them away.() ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 17. After seizing and pacifying the various commanderies in southern Jing Province, Liu Bei appointed Guan Yu as the Administrator () of Xiangyang and General Who Defeats Bandits (), and ordered him to station at the north of the

Yangtze River The Yangtze or Yangzi ( or ; ) is the longest list of rivers of Asia, river in Asia, the list of rivers by length, third-longest in the world, and the longest in the world to flow entirely within one country. It rises at Jari Hill in th ...

.() ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 36.

Guarding Jing Province

Between 212 and 214,

started a campaign to seize control of

from the provincial governor Liu Zhang. Most of Liu Bei's subordinates participated in the campaign, while Guan Yu remained behind to guard and oversee Liu Bei's territories in Jing Province.() ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 36.

Sun-Liu territorial dispute

During the mid 210s, a territorial dispute broke out between Liu Bei and Sun Quan in southern Jing Province. According to an earlier arrangement, Liu Bei "borrowed" southern Jing Province from Sun Quan to serve as a temporary base; he would have to return the territories to Sun Quan once he found another base. After Liu Bei seized control of Yi Province, Sun Quan asked him to return three commanderies but Liu Bei refused. Sun Quan then sent his general Lü Meng to lead his forces to seize the three commanderies. In response, Liu Bei ordered Guan Yu to lead troops to stop Lü Meng.() ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 54.

Gan Ning Gan Ning () (early 170s - c. 220), courtesy name Xingba, was a Chinese military general serving under the warlord Sun Quan in the late Eastern Han dynasty. Originally a notorious pirate, he gave up the life of a marauder in the late 190s and beca ...

, one of Lü Meng's subordinates, managed to deter Guan Yu from crossing the shallows near

Yiyang Yiyang () is a prefecture-level city on the Zi River in Hunan province, China, straddling Lake Dongting and bordering Hubei to the north. According to the 2010 Census, Yiyang has a population of 4,313,084 inhabitants residing in an area of . Th ...

. The shallows were thus named ' Guan Yu's Shallows' ().() ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 55.

Lu Su Lu Su (172–217), courtesy name Zijing, was a Chinese military general and politician serving under the warlord Sun Quan during the late Eastern Han dynasty. In the year 200, when Sun Quan had just taken over the reins of power, his adviser Z ...

(the overall commander of Sun Quan's forces in Jing Province) later invited Guan Yu to attend a meeting to settle the territorial dispute. Around 215, after Cao Cao seized control of Hanzhong Commandery, Liu Bei saw that as a strategic threat to his position in Yi Province so he decided to make peace with Sun Quan and agreed to divide southern Jing Province between his and Sun Quan's domains along the

Xiang River The Xiang River is the chief river of the Dongting Lake, Lake Dongting Drainage basin, drainage system of the middle Yangtze, the largest river in Hunan, Hunan Province, China. It is the 2nd largest tributary (after Min River (Sichuan), Min River ...

. Both sides then withdrew their forces.() ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 54.

Battle of Fancheng

Shang Xi, Guan Yu Captures General Pang De

In 219,

emerged victorious in the

Hanzhong Campaign The Hanzhong Campaign was a military campaign launched by the warlord Liu Bei to seize control of Hanzhong Commandery from his rival, Cao Cao. The campaign took place between 217 and 219 during the prelude to the Three Kingdoms period. Althou ...

against Cao Cao, after which he declared himself "King of Hanzhong" (). He appointed Guan Yu as General of the Vanguard () and bestowed upon him a ceremonial axe. In the same year, Guan Yu led his forces to attack

at Fancheng and besiege the fortress. Cao Cao sent

Yu Jin Yu Jin (died 221), courtesy name Wenze, was a Chinese military general serving under the warlord Cao Cao in the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. He joined Cao Cao in 192 around the start of the civil wars leading to the collapse of the dyna ...

to lead reinforcements to help Cao Ren. It was in autumn and there were heavy showers so the Han River overflowed. The flood destroyed Yu Jin's seven armies. Guan Yu had prepared his navy to advance during the flood, and Yu Jin surrendered to Guan Yu while his subordinate

Pang De Pang De () (died 219), courtesy name Lingming, was a Chinese military general who lived during the late Eastern Han dynasty. He started his career under the warlord Ma Teng, who was based in Liang Province. In 211, Ma Teng's son Ma Chao, along ...

refused and was executed by Guan Yu. Various local officials such as Administrator of Nanxiang Fu Fang and Inspector Jing Province Hu Xiu defected to Guan Yu. Angered by Cao Cao's forced labor put upon them, rebel peasants and bandits in Liang(), Jia() and Luhun() also submitted to Guan Yu and received official seals to work as his raiders. Guan Yu's fame spread throughout China.() ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 36. The ''Shu Ji'' recorded that before Guan Yu embarked on the Fancheng campaign, he dreamt about a boar biting his foot. He told his son

Guan Ping Guan Ping () (died January or February 220) was a military general serving under the warlord Liu Bei during the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. Life Guan Ping was the eldest son of Guan Yu. Little about him is documented in historical recor ...

, "I am growing weaker this year. I might not even return alive."() ''Shu Ji'' annotation in ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 36.

Belittling Sun Quan

With

gaining Hanzhong as well as the northwest commanderies of Jing: Fangling, Shangyong and Xicheng; and now after Yu Jin's defeat, Cao Cao contemplated relocating the imperial capital from Xu further north into

Hebei Hebei or , (; alternately Hopeh) is a northern province of China. Hebei is China's sixth most populous province, with over 75 million people. Shijiazhuang is the capital city. The province is 96% Han Chinese, 3% Manchu, 0.8% Hui, and 0 ...

to avoid Guan Yu, but Sima Yi and

Jiang Ji Jiang Ji (died 18 May 249), courtesy name Zitong, was an official and military general of the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period of China. Born in the late Eastern Han dynasty, Jiang Ji started his career as a low-level official i ...

told him that Sun Quan would become restless when he heard of Guan Yu's victory. They suggested to Cao Cao to ally with Sun Quan and get him to help them hinder Guan Yu's advances; in return, Cao Cao would recognise the legitimacy of Sun Quan's claim over the territories in Jiangdong. In this way, the siege on Fancheng would automatically be lifted. Cao Cao heeded their suggestion. Previously, Sun Quan had sent a messenger to meet Guan Yu and propose a marriage between his son and Guan Yu's daughter. However, Guan Yu not only rejected the proposal, but also scolded and humiliated the messenger. Sun Quan was enraged.() ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 36.

Encounter with Xu Huang

Cao Cao later sent

Xu Huang Xu Huang () (died 227), courtesy name Gongming, was a Chinese military general serving under the warlord Cao Cao in the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. He later served in the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period under the first ...

to lead another army to reinforce Cao Ren at Fancheng. Xu Huang broke through Guan Yu's encirclement and routed Guan Yu's forces on the battlefield, thus lifting the siege on Fancheng.() ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 17. Guan Yu withdrew his forces after seeing that he could not capture Fancheng.() ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 36. The ''Shu Ji'' recorded an incident about Xu Huang encountering Guan Yu on the battlefield. Xu Huang was previously a close friend of Guan Yu. They often chatted about other things apart from military affairs. When they met again at Fancheng, Xu Huang gave an order to his men: "Whoever takes Guan Yu's head will be rewarded with 1,000 '' jin'' of gold." A shocked Guan Yu asked Xu Huang, "Brother, what are you talking about?" Xu Huang replied, "This is an affair of the state."() ''Shu Ji'' annotation in ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 36.

Losing Jing Province

China Shanxi Ming dynasty - Buddhist deity GuanGong or Guan Yu - wood IMG 9575 Museum of Asian Civilisation

Although Guan Yu defeated and captured

at Fancheng, his army found itself lacking food supplies, so he seized grain from one of Sun Quan's granaries at Xiang Pass (). By then, Sun Quan had secretly agreed to an alliance with Cao Cao and sent Lü Meng and others to invade Jing Province while he followed behind with reinforcements. At Xunyang (), Lü Meng ordered his troops to hide in vessels disguised as civilian and merchant ships and sail towards Jing Province. Along the way, Lü Meng infiltrated and disabled the watchtowers set up by Guan Yu along the river, so Guan Yu was totally unaware of the invasion.() ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 54. When Guan Yu embarked on the Fancheng campaign, he left

Mi Fang Mi Fang (died 223), courtesy name Zifang, was a Chinese military general and politician serving under the warlord Liu Bei in the late Eastern Han dynasty. He was also the younger brother of Mi Zhu, who also served Liu Bei. In 219, Mi Fang surren ...

and Shi Ren behind to defend his key bases in Jing Province –

Nan Commandery Nan Commandery ( zh, 南郡, "Southern Commandery") was a Chinese commandery that existed from the Warring States period to Tang dynasty. Its territories covered present-day central and western Hubei province, as well as parts of Chongqing. The seat ...

and

Gong'an Gong'an County () is a county in southern Hubei province, People's Republic of China, bordering Hunan to the south. It is under the administration of Jingzhou City. History During the Han dynasty and the Three Kingdoms era, Gong'an County was k ...

. Guan Yu had constantly treated them with contempt. During the campaign, after Mi Fang and Shi Ren sent insufficient supplies to Guan Yu's army at the frontline, an annoyed Guan Yu said, "I will deal with them when I return." Mi Fang and Shi Ren felt uneasy about this. When Sun Quan invaded Jing Province, Lü Meng showed understanding towards Mi Fang and successfully induced him into surrendering while

Yu Fan Yu Fan (, , ; 164–233), courtesy name Zhongxiang, was a Chinese essayist, politician, and writer of the state of Eastern Wu during the Three Kingdoms period of China. Initially a minor officer under Wang Lang, the Administrator of Kuaiji Com ...

also persuaded Shi Ren to give up resistance. With the exceptions of the northwest, Liu Bei's territories in Jing Province fell under Sun Quan's control after the surrenders of Mi Fang and Shi Ren.() ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 36.

Dubious account from the ''Dianlue''

The ''Dianlue'' recorded: Pei Songzhi commented on the ''Dianlue'' account as follows:

Death

By the time Guan Yu retreated from Fancheng, Sun Quan's forces had occupied Jiangling and captured the families of Guan Yu's soldiers. Lü Meng ordered his troops to treat the civilians well and ensure that they were not harmed. Most of Guan Yu's soldiers lost their fighting spirit and deserted and went back to Jing Province to reunite with their families. Guan Yu knew that he had been isolated so he withdrew to Maicheng (; in present-day

Dangyang Dangyang () is a city in western Hubei province, People's Republic of China, lying east of the Gezhouba Dam on the Yangtze River. During the Western Han Dynasty (206-24 BC). Emperor Jing of Han established an administration in Dangyang on an are ...

, Hubei) and headed west to Zhang District (), where his remaining men deserted him and surrendered to the enemy. Sun Quan sent

Zhu Ran Zhu Ran (182 – March or April 249), born Shi Ran, courtesy name Yifeng, was a Chinese military general of the state of Eastern Wu during the Three Kingdoms period of China. Despite being a childhood friend of Wu's founding emperor, Sun Quan, h ...

and

Pan Zhang Pan Zhang (died 234), courtesy name Wengui, was a military general serving under the warlord Sun Quan during the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. He continued serving in the state of Eastern Wu (founded by Sun Quan) during the Three Kingdoms ...

to block Guan Yu's retreat route. Guan Yu, along with his son

and subordinate Zhao Lei (), were captured alive by Pan Zhang's deputy Ma Zhong () in an ambush. Guan Yu and Guan Ping were later executed by Sun Quan's forces in Linju (; in present-day

Nanzhang County Nanzhang County () is a county of northwestern Hubei province, People's Republic of China. It is under the administration of Xiangyang City. Administrative divisions Ten towns: * Chengguan (), Wu'an Wu'an is a county-level city in the southwest ...

, Hubei).() ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 36.() ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 54.() ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 55.

Alternate account from the ''Shu Ji''

The ''Shu Ji'' mentioned that Sun Quan initially wanted to keep Guan Yu alive in the hope of using Guan Yu to help him counter Liu Bei and Cao Cao. However, his followers advised him against doing so by saying, "A wolf shouldn't be kept as a pet as it'll bring harm to the keeper. Cao Cao made a mistake when he refused to kill Guan Yu and landed himself in deep trouble. He even had to consider relocating the imperial capital elsewhere. How can Guan Yu be allowed to live?" Sun Quan then ordered Guan Yu's execution.() ''Shu Ji'' annotation in ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 36. Pei Songzhi disputed this account as follows:

Posthumous honours

Sun Quan sent Guan Yu's head to Cao Cao, who arranged a noble's funeral for Guan Yu and had his head properly buried with full honours.() ''Wu Li'' annotation in ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 36. In October or November 260,

Liu Shan Liu Shan () (207–271), courtesy name Gongsi, was the second and last emperor of the state of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms period. As he ascended the throne at the age of 16, Liu Shan was entrusted to the care of the Chancellor Zhug ...

granted Guan Yu the

posthumous title A posthumous name is an honorary name given mostly to the notable dead in East Asian culture. It is predominantly practiced in East Asian countries such as China, Korea, Vietnam, Japan, and Thailand. Reflecting on the person's accomplishments o ...

"Marquis Zhuangmou" ().() ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 36.() ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 33. According to posthumous naming rules in the ''

Yi Zhou Shu The ''Yi Zhou Shu'' () is a compendium of Chinese historical documents about the Western Zhou period (1046–771 BCE). Its textual history began with a (4th century BCE) text/compendium known as the ''Zhou Shu'' ("Book of Zhou"), which was possibl ...

'', "mou" was meant for a person who failed to live up to his reputation.

Anecdotes

Request to take Qin Yilu's wife

During the

in late 198, when the allied forces of Cao Cao and

fought against

, Guan Yu sought permission from Cao Cao to marry

Qin Yilu Qin Yilu (died 199) was a military officer who served under the general and warlord Lü Bu in the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. Allowing for variant writing in the records, Qin Yilu was probably the same person as two others named Qin Yi ( ...

's wife Lady Du () after they won the battle. After Cao Cao agreed, Guan Yu still repeatedly reminded Cao Cao about his promise before the battle ended. After Lü Bu's defeat and death, Cao Cao was so curious about why Guan Yu wanted Lady Du so badly and he guessed that she must be very beautiful, so he had her brought to him. Cao Cao ultimately broke his promise as he took Lady Du as his concubine and adopted her son

Qin Lang Qin Lang ( 227–238), courtesy name Yuanming, was a military general of the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period of China. Family background Qin Lang was born in the late Eastern Han dynasty and his ancestral home was in Xinxing ...

(whom she had with Qin Yilu).() ''Shu Ji'' annotation in ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 36.() ''Huayang Guo Zhi'' vol. 6.

Advice to Liu Bei

The ''Shu Ji'' recorded an incident as follows: Pei Songzhi commented on the ''Shu Ji'' account as follows:

Asking Zhuge Liang about Ma Chao

In 214,

Ma Chao Ma Chao () (176–222), courtesy name Mengqi, was a Chinese military general and warlord who lived in the late Eastern Han dynasty and early Three Kingdoms period of China. A descendant of the general Ma Yuan, Ma Chao was the eldest son of Ma ...

defected from Zhang Lu's side to Liu Bei's forces, and he assisted Liu Bei in pressuring Liu Zhang to surrender and yield Yi Province to Liu Bei. When Guan Yu received news that Ma Chao (whom he was unfamiliar with) had recently joined them, he wrote to

in Yi Province and asked him who was comparable to Ma Chao. Zhuge Liang knew that Guan Yu was defending the border (so he should not displease Guan Yu). He replied: "Mengqi is proficient in both civil and military affairs. He is fierce and mighty, and a hero of his time. He is comparable to Qing Bu and

Peng Yue Peng Yue (died 196 BC), courtesy name Zhong, was a Chinese military general and politician in the late Qin dynasty and early Western Han dynasty. He was involved in the Chu–Han Contention – a power struggle between the Han dynasty's founder, ...

. He can compete with Yide, but he is not as good as the peerless beard."() ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 36. Guan Yu was very pleased when he received Zhuge Liang's reply and he welcomed Ma Chao.() ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 36.

Arm injury

Guan Yu was once injured in the left arm by a stray arrow which pierced through his arm. Although the wound healed, he still experienced pain in the bone whenever there was a heavy downpour. A physician told him, "The arrowhead had poison on it and the poison had seeped into the bone. The way to get rid of this problem is to cut open your arm and scrape away the poison in your bone." Guan Yu then stretched out his arm and asked the physician to heal him. He then invited his subordinates to dine with him while the surgery was being performed. Blood flowed from his arm into a container below. Throughout the operation, Guan Yu feasted, consumed alcohol and chatted with his men as though nothing had happened.() ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 36.

Family

Guan Yu had two known sons –

and

Guan Xing Guan Xing ( third century), courtesy name Anguo, was an official of the state of Shu Han in the Three Kingdoms period of China. History He was the second son of Guan Yu and a younger brother of Guan Ping. Little information about Guan Xing is ...

. Guan Xing inherited his father's title "Marquis of Hanshou Village" () and served in the state of Shu during the

period.() ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 36. Guan Yu also had a daughter. Sun Quan once proposed a marriage between his son and Guan Yu's daughter, but Guan Yu rejected the proposal. Her name was not recorded in history, but she was known as "Guan Yinping" () or "Guan Feng" () in folktales and Chinese opera, as well as in the ''

Dynasty Warriors is a series of Japanese hack and slash action video games created by Omega Force and Koei (now is Koei Tecmo). The series is a spin-off of Koei's turn-based strategy '' Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' series, based upon the Chinese novel of ...

'' video game series (as Guan Yinping). Guan Yu allegedly had a third son, Guan Suo, who is not mentioned in historical texts and appears only in folklore, the ''

'' novel, and in ''Dynasty Warriors''. Guan Xing's son, Guan Tong (), married a princess (one of

's daughters) and served as a General of the Household () among the imperial guards. Guan Tong had no son when he died, so he was succeeded by his younger half-brother Guan Yi ().() ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 36. According to the ''Shu Ji'', after the fall of Shu in 263,

Pang Hui Pang De () (died 219), courtesy name Lingming, was a Chinese military general who lived during the late Eastern Han dynasty. He started his career under the warlord Ma Teng, who was based in Liang Province. In 211, Ma Teng's son Ma Chao, along ...

(

's son) massacred Guan Yu's family and descendants to avenge his father, who was executed by Guan Yu after the

in 219.() ''Shu Ji'' annotation in ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 36. In 1719, the

Kangxi Emperor The Kangxi Emperor (4 May 1654– 20 December 1722), also known by his temple name Emperor Shengzu of Qing, born Xuanye, was the third emperor of the Qing dynasty, and the second Qing emperor to rule over China proper, reigning from 1661 to ...

of the

Qing dynasty The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-spea ...

awarded the hereditary title "

Wujing Boshi The Duke Yansheng, literally "Honorable Overflowing with Wisdom", sometimes translated as Holy Duke of Yen, was a Chinese title of nobility. It was originally created as a marquis title in the Western Han dynasty for a direct descendant o ...

" (; "Professor of the

Five Classics The Four Books and Five Classics () are the authoritative books of Confucianism, written in China before 300 BCE. The Four Books and the Five Classics are the most important classics of Chinese Confucianism. Four Books The Four Books () are ...

") to Guan Yu's descendants living in

Luoyang Luoyang is a city located in the confluence area of Luo River and Yellow River in the west of Henan province. Governed as a prefecture-level city, it borders the provincial capital of Zhengzhou to the east, Pingdingshan to the southeast, Nanyang ...

. The bearer of the title is entitled to an honorary position in the Hanlin Academy.

Appraisal

, who wrote Guan Yu's biography in the ''Sanguozhi'', commented on the latter as such: "Guan Yu and Zhang Fei were praised as mighty warriors capable of fighting ten thousand of enemies (萬人敵). They were like tigers among (

's) subjects. Guan Yu and Zhang Fei both had the style of a ''guoshi''. Guan Yu repaid Cao Cao's kindness while Zhang Fei released Yan Yan out of righteousness. However, Guan Yu was unrelenting and conceited while Zhang Fei was brutal and heartless. These shortcomings resulted in their downfalls. This was not something uncommon."() ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 36. Both Guan Yu and Zhang Fei had a prominent reputation during their lifetimes as great warriors. To the point that eminent officials from other kingdoms such as

Cheng Yu Cheng Yu (141 – December 220), originally named Cheng Li, courtesy name Zhongde, was a Chinese politician who lived during the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. He was an adviser to Cao Cao, the warlord who became the ''de facto'' head of ...

Guo Jia Guo Jia () (170–207), courtesy name Fengxiao, was an adviser to the warlord Cao Cao during the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. Throughout his 11 years of service, Guo Jia aided Cao Cao greatly with his brilliance and foresight, and his str ...

and

Zhou Yu Zhou Yu (, ) (175–210), courtesy name Gongjin (), was a Chinese military general and strategist serving under the warlord Sun Ce in the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. After Sun Ce died in the year 200, he continued serving under Sun Quan, ...

directly referred to them as warriors who are a match for ten thousand men (萬人敵) and generals with the might of bears and tigers. Such was the extent of their fames.(傅子曰：...。嘉言於太祖曰：「備有雄才而甚得衆心。張飛、關羽者，皆萬人之敵也，為之死用。....) ''Fu Zi'' annotation in ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 14.(... 瑜上疏曰：「劉備以梟雄之姿，而有關羽、張飛熊虎之將，必非乆屈為人用者。...」) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 54.(初，飛雄壯威猛，亞於關羽，魏謀臣程昱等咸稱羽、飛萬人之敵也。...) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 36. Another lesser known official working for Cao Cao's state, Fu Gan (傅幹) qualified Zhang Fei and Guan Yu as heroes of their time possessing both braveness and righteousness; and also repeat the assessment that they are warriors who are a match for ten thousand men (萬人敵).(徵士傅幹曰：“...張飛、關羽勇而有義，皆萬人之敵，而為之將：此三人者，皆人傑也。以備之略，三傑佐之，何為不濟也？”) ''Fu Zi'' annotation in ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 32. The appraisal used by people of their lifetimes to describe Guan Yu and Zhang Fei as warriors who are a match for ten thousand men (萬人敵) would transcend the Three Kingdoms era and later be used in Chinese culture as an idiom to characterize someone as possessing extraordinary strength. The Australian sinologist Rafe de Crespigny commented: "There are anecdotes describing Zhang Fei as a man of literary tastes who composed verse in the midst of battle, but he is more generally known as arrogant, impetuous and brutal. While Guan Yu was said to be harsh towards men of the gentry but treated his soldiers well, Zhang Fei was courteous towards his betters but cruel to his rank and file. The two men were nonetheless regarded as the finest fighting men of their lifetime."

In ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms''

The 14th-century historical novel ''

'' glorifies Guan Yu by portraying him as a righteous and loyal warrior. Guan Yu is one of the most altered and aggrandised characters in the novel, which accounts for his popular image in Chinese society. See the following for some fictitious stories in ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' involving Guan Yu: *

Oath of the Peach Garden The Oath of the Peach Garden is a fictional event in the 14th century Chinese historical novel ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' by Luo Guanzhong. This event is set at the end of the Eastern Han dynasty around the time of the Yellow Turban ...

Battle of Hulao Pass The following is a chronologically arranged list of apocryphal stories in the 14th century novel ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' (''Sanguo Yanyi''), one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature. Although the novel is a romanti ...

* List of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms#Guan Yu's three conditions * List of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms#Guan Yu slays Yan Liang and Wen Chou * List of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms#Guan Yu crosses five passes and slays six generals * List of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms#Guan Yu slays Cai Yang at Gucheng * List of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms#Guan Yu releases Cao Cao at Huarong Trail * Sun–Liu territorial dispute#In Romance of the Three Kingdoms * List of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms#Hua Tuo heals Guan Yu's arm * Lü Meng#In Romance of the Three Kingdoms * List of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms#Events after Guan Yu's death

Worship of Guan Yu

Taiwan 2009 JinGuaShi Historic Gold Mine Valley View Left Page FRD 8822 Giant Statue of GuanYu

Guan Yu was deified as early as the Sui dynasty (581–618), and is still worshipped today as a

bodhisattva In Buddhism, a bodhisattva ( ; sa, 𑀩𑁄𑀥𑀺𑀲𑀢𑁆𑀢𑁆𑀯 (Brahmī), translit=bodhisattva, label=Sanskrit) or bodhisatva is a person who is on the path towards bodhi ('awakening') or Buddhahood. In the Early Buddhist schools ...

Buddhist Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and ...

tradition and as a guardian deity in Chinese folk religion and

. He is also held in high esteem in

In Chinese religion

, Guan Yu is widely referred to as "Emperor Guan" (; ''dì'' implies deified status) and "Lord Guan" (), while his Taoist title is "Holy Emperor Lord Guan" ().

Martial temple Martial temples (), also translated as military temples or warrior temples, are Chinese temples dedicated to worshiping outstanding military leaders and strategists (excluding kings and emperors). They were often built by the governments as the c ...

s and shrines dedicated exclusively to Guan Yu can be found across mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan, and other places with Chinese influence such as Vietnam, South Korea and Japan. Some of these temples, such as the Guandi Temple in Xiezhou (), Shanxi, were built exactly in the layout of an imperial residence, befitting his status as a "ruler".

Historical veneration

The apotheosis of Guan Yu occurred in stages, as he was given ever higher posthumous titles.

, the second emperor of Shu, gave Guan Yu the posthumous title of "Marquis Zhuangmou" () four decades after his death. During the

Song dynasty The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the rest ...

, Emperor Huizong bestowed upon Guan Yu the title "Duke Zhonghui" (), and later the title of a prince. In 1187, Emperor Xiaozong honoured Guan Yu as "Prince Zhuangmou Yiyong Wu'an Yingji" (). During the

Yuan dynasty The Yuan dynasty (), officially the Great Yuan (; xng, , , literally "Great Yuan State"), was a Mongol-led imperial dynasty of China and a successor state to the Mongol Empire after its division. It was established by Kublai, the fift ...

, Emperor Wenzong changed Guan Yu's title to "Prince of Xianling Yiyong Wu'an Yingji" (). In 1614, the

Wanli Emperor The Wanli Emperor (; 4 September 1563 – 18 August 1620), personal name Zhu Yijun (), was the 14th Emperor of the Ming dynasty, reigned from 1572 to 1620. "Wanli", the era name of his reign, literally means "ten thousand calendars". He was th ...

bestowed on Guan Yu the title "Holy Emperor Guan, the Great God Who Subdues Demons in the Three Worlds and Whose Awe Spreads Far and Moves Heaven" (). During the

, the Shunzhi Emperor gave Guan Yu the title of "Guan, the Loyal and Righteous God of War, the Holy Great Deity" () in 1644. This title was expanded to "Guan the Holy Great Deity; God of War Manifesting Benevolence, Bravery and Prestige; Protector of the Country and Defender of the People; Proud and Honest Supporter of Peace and Reconciliation; Promoter of Morality, Loyalty and Righteousness" (), a total of 24

Chinese character Chinese characters () are logograms developed for the writing of Chinese. In addition, they have been adapted to write other East Asian languages, and remain a key component of the Japanese writing system where they are known as ''kanj ...

s, by the mid-19th century. It is often shortened to "Saint of War" (), which is of the same rank as

Confucius Confucius ( ; zh, s=, p=Kǒng Fūzǐ, "Master Kǒng"; or commonly zh, s=, p=Kǒngzǐ, labels=no; – ) was a Chinese philosopher and politician of the Spring and Autumn period who is traditionally considered the paragon of Chinese sages. C ...

, who is honoured the "Saint of Culture" (). The Qing dynasty promoted the worship of Guan Yu among the Mongol tribes, making him one of their most revered religious figures, second only to their lamas. Altar at the Temple of Guandi (a Chinese temple) in Osaka

Altar at the Temple of Guandi (a Chinese temple) in Osaka

Throughout history, Guan Yu has also been credited with many military successes. In the 14th century, his spirit was said to have aided

Zhu Yuanzhang The Hongwu Emperor (21 October 1328 – 24 June 1398), personal name Zhu Yuanzhang (), courtesy name Guorui (), was the founding emperor of the Ming dynasty of China, reigning from 1368 to 1398. As famine, plagues and peasant revolts i ...

, the founder of the

Ming dynasty The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last orthodox dynasty of China ruled by the Han peo ...

, at the

Battle of Lake Poyang The Battle of Lake Poyang () was a naval conflict which took place (30 August – 4 October 1363) between the rebel forces of Zhu Yuanzhang and Chen Youliang during the Red Turban Rebellion which led to the fall of the Yuan dynasty. Chen Youlia ...

. In 1402, when

Zhu Di The Yongle Emperor (; pronounced ; 2 May 1360 – 12 August 1424), personal name Zhu Di (), was the third Emperor of the Ming dynasty, reigning from 1402 to 1424. Zhu Di was the fourth son of the Hongwu Emperor, the founder of the Ming dyna ...

launched a coup d'état and successfully deposed his nephew, the

Jianwen Emperor The Jianwen Emperor (5 December 1377 – ?), personal name Zhu Yunwen (), was the second Emperor of the Ming dynasty, reigned from 1398 to 1402. The era name of his reign, Jianwen, means "establishing civility" and represented a sharp chan ...

, Zhu Di claimed that he was blessed by the spirit of Guan Yu. During the last decade of the 16th century, Guan Yu was also credited with the repulse of Japanese invasion of Korea by

Toyotomi Hideyoshi , otherwise known as and , was a Japanese samurai and ''daimyō'' (feudal lord) of the late Sengoku period regarded as the second "Great Unifier" of Japan.Richard Holmes, The World Atlas of Warfare: Military Innovations that Changed the Cour ...

. The Manchu imperial clan of the

was also associated with Guan Yu's martial qualities. During the 20th century, Guan Yu was worshipped by the warlord

Yuan Shikai Yuan Shikai (; 16 September 1859 – 6 June 1916) was a Chinese military and government official who rose to power during the late Qing dynasty and eventually ended the Qing dynasty rule of China in 1912, later becoming the Emperor of China. H ...

, president and later a short-lived emperor of China. Guan Yu's messages were received by mediums through

spirit writing Automatic writing, also called psychography, is a claimed psychic ability allowing a person to produce written words without consciously writing. Practitioners engage in automatic writing by holding a writing instrument and allowing alleged spir ...

, later called

Fuji (planchette writing) Fuji () is a method of " planchette writing", or " spirit writing", that uses a suspended sieve or tray to guide a stick which writes Chinese characters in sand or incense ashes. Development Beginning around the Ming dynasty (1368-1644 CE), the ...

(), since the late 17th century. “By the mid-Qianlong period (1736–96) the number of ‘sacred edicts’ issued by Guandi ordering people to do good and help those in need became increasingly frequent.” In the 19th century, Guandi’s messages received through spirit writing assumed a millennialist character. Dates were announced for the end of the world, followed by messages indicating that Guandi had “prevented the apocalypse” and was indeed “the savior of endtimes.” In 1866, the Ten Completions Society (Shiquanhui 十全會) was established to propagate the messages of Guandi and promote the charitable work his spirit had ordered to perform. The tradition of Guandi spirit writing continued in Chinese folk Religion well into the 20th century.

Contemporary veneration

Altar to Guandi in a restaurant of Beijing

Today, Guan Yu is still widely worshipped by the Chinese; he may be worshipped in

s and Wen Wu temples, and small shrines devoted to him are also found in homes, businesses and fraternal organisations. In Hong Kong, a shrine to Guan Yu can be found in every police station. Though by no means mandatory, Chinese police officers worship and pay respect to him. Although seemingly ironic, members of the triads and Heaven and Earth Society worship Guan Yu as well. Statues used by triads tend to hold the halberd in the left hand, and statues in police stations tend to hold the halberd in the right hand. This signifies which side Guan Yu is worshipped, by the righteous people or vice versa. The appearance of Guan Yu's face for the triads is usually more stern and threatening than the usual statue. In Hong Kong, Guan Yu is often referred to as "Yi Gor" (; Cantonese for "second elder brother") for he was second to

in their fictional sworn brotherhood. Guan Yu is also worshipped by Chinese businessmen in Shanxi, Hong Kong, Macau and Southeast Asia as an alternative wealth god, since he is perceived to bless the upright and protect them from the wicked. Another reason is related to the release of Cao Cao during the Huarong Trail incident, in which he let Cao and his men pass through safely. For that, he was perceived to be able to extend the lifespan of people in need. Among

Chinese Filipino Chinese Filipinos; tl, Tsinoy, / Tsinong Pilipino, ; Hokkien in the Philippines, Philippine Hokkien , Mandarin Chinese in the Philippines, Mandarin (also known as Filipino Chinese in the Philippines) are Filipinos of Chinese descent, mo ...

s in the

Philippines The Philippines (; fil, Pilipinas, links=no), officially the Republic of the Philippines ( fil, Republika ng Pilipinas, links=no), * bik, Republika kan Filipinas * ceb, Republika sa Pilipinas * cbk, República de Filipinas * hil, Republ ...

, Guan Yu is also sometimes known as ''" Santo Santiago"'' ( St. James) or in Hokkien as "''Te Ya Kong"'' (

Hokkien The Hokkien () variety of Chinese is a Southern Min language native to and originating from the Minnan region, where it is widely spoken in the south-eastern part of Fujian in southeastern mainland China. It is one of the national languages ...

) or "''Kuan Kong"'' (

). Among the Cantonese people who emigrated to California during the mid-19th century, the worship of Guan Yu was an important element. Statues and tapestry images of the god can be found in a number of historical California joss houses (a local term for

temples), where his name may be given with various Anglicised spellings, including: ''Kwan Dai'', ''Kwan Tai'' or ''Kuan Ti'' for ''Guandi'' (Emperor Guan); ''Kuan Kung'' for ''Guan Gong'' (Lord Guan), ''Wu Ti'' or ''Mo Dai'' for ''Wu Di'' (War Deity), ''Kuan Yu'', ''Kwan Yu'', or ''Quan Yu'' for Guan Yu. The

Mendocino Joss House The Temple of Kwan Tai (; Yale: ''Móuhdai Míu'', also known as the Mendocino Joss House or Mo Dai Miu) is a Chinese Taoist temple in Mendocino, California, dedicated to Kwan Tai. It is California Historical Landmark #927. The temple was cons ...

, a historical landmark also known as Mo Dai Miu (''Wudimiao'', i.e. the Temple of the Deity of War), or Temple of Kwan Tai, built in 1852, is a typical example of the small shrines erected to Guan Yu in the United States. Guan Yu is also worshipped as a

door god Menshen or door gods are divine guardians of doors and gates in Chinese folk religions, used to protect against evil influences or to encourage the entrance of positive ones. They began as the divine pair Shenshu ( ) and Yulü () under the ...

Chinese Chinese can refer to: * Something related to China * Chinese people, people of Chinese nationality, citizenship, and/or ethnicity **''Zhonghua minzu'', the supra-ethnic concept of the Chinese nation ** List of ethnic groups in China, people of ...

and

Taoist temple A Taoist temple (, also called ''dàoguàn'' and , is a place where the Tao is observed and cultivated it is a place of worship in Taoism. Structure and function can vary according to the Taoist school the temple belongs to. For example, ''guà ...

s, with portraits of him being pasted on doors to ward off evil spirits, usually in pairings with

Guan Sheng Guan Sheng is a fictional character in ''Water Margin'', one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature. Nicknamed "Great Blade", he ranks fifth among the 36 Heavenly Spirits, the first third of the 108 Stars of Destiny. Backgrou ...

Zhou Cang Zhou Cang is a fictional character in the 14th-century Chinese historical novel ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms''. Story A strong warrior with a dark face and a wiry beard, Zhou Cang gets caught up in the Yellow Turban Rebellion towards the end ...

. Apart from general worship, Guan Yu is also commemorated in China with colossal statues such as the 1,320-tonne sculpture in Jingzhou City,

Hubei Province Hubei (; ; alternately Hupeh) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China, and is part of the Central China region. The name of the province means "north of the lake", referring to its position north of Dongting Lake. The prov ...

, standing at 58 metres.

In Taoism

Guan Yu is revered as "Holy Ruler Deity Guan" () and a leading subduer of demons in Taoism. Taoist worship of Guan Yu began during the

. Legend has it that during the second decade of the 12th century, the saltwater lake in Xiezhou gradually ceased to yield salt. Emperor Huizong then summoned Zhang Jixian (), a 30th-generation descendant of

Zhang Daoling Zhang Ling (; traditionally 34–156), courtesy name Fuhan (), was a Chinese religious leader who lived during the Eastern Han Dynasty credited with founding the Way of the Celestial Masters sect of Taoism, which is also known as the Way of the ...

, to investigate the cause. The emperor was told that the disruption was the work of

Chi You Chiyou (蚩尤, ) is a mythological being that appears in East Asian mythology. Individual According to the Song dynasty history book '' Lushi'', Chiyou's surname was Jiang (), and he was a descendant of flame. According to legend, Chiyou had a ...

, a deity of war. Zhang Jixian then recruited the help of Guan Yu, who battled Chi You over the lake and triumphed, whereupon the lake resumed salt production. Emperor Huizong then bestowed upon Guan Yu the title "Immortal of Chongning" (), formally introducing the latter as a deity into Taoism. In the early

, the 42nd Celestial Master, Zhang Zhengchang (), recorded the incident in his book ''Lineage of the Han Celestial Masters'' (), the first Taoist classic to affirm the legend. Today, Taoist practices are predominant in Guan Yu worship. Many temples dedicated to Guan Yu, including the Emperor Guan Temple in Xiezhou County, show heavy Taoist influence. Every year, on the 24th day of the sixth month on the

lunar calendar A lunar calendar is a calendar based on the monthly cycles of the Moon's phases ( synodic months, lunations), in contrast to solar calendars, whose annual cycles are based only directly on the solar year. The most commonly used calendar, t ...

(Guan Yu's birthday in legend), a street parade in Guan Yu's honour would also be held.

In Buddhism

, Guan Yu is revered by most Chinese Mahayana Buddhists as Sangharama

Bodhisattva In Buddhism, a bodhisattva ( ; sa, 𑀩𑁄𑀥𑀺𑀲𑀢𑁆𑀢𑁆𑀯 (Brahmī), translit=bodhisattva, label=Sanskrit) or bodhisatva is a person who is on the path towards bodhi ('awakening') or Buddhahood. In the Early Buddhist schools ...

() a heavenly protector of the Buddhist dharma. ''

Sangharama Sangharama (Sanskrit: संघराम ''Saṃgharāma'') refers to a "temple" or "monastery." It is the place, including its garden or grove, where the Sangha, the Buddhist monastic community dwells. A famous sangharāma was that of Kukkutara ...

'' in

Sanskrit Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...

means 'community garden' (''sangha'', community + ''arama'', garden) and thus 'monastery'. The term ''Sangharama'' also refer to the

dharmapala A ''dharmapāla'' (, , ja, 達磨波羅, 護法善神, 護法神, 諸天善神, 諸天鬼神, 諸天善神諸大眷屬) is a type of wrathful god in Buddhism. The name means "'' dharma'' protector" in Sanskrit, and the ''dharmapālas'' are a ...

class of devas and spirits assigned to guard the Buddhist monastery, the dharma, and the faith itself. Over time and as an act of syncreticism, Guan Yu was seen as the representative guardian of the temple and the garden in which it stands. His statue traditionally is situated in the far left of the main altar, opposite his counterpart Skanda. According to Buddhist legends, in 592, Guan Yu manifested himself one night before the Chan master

Zhiyi Zhiyi (; 538–597 CE) also Chen De'an (陳德安), is the fourth patriarch of the Tiantai tradition of Buddhism in China. His standard title was Śramaṇa Zhiyi (沙門智顗), linking him to the broad tradition of Indian asceticism. Zhiyi i ...

, the founder of the

Tiantai Tiantai or T'ien-t'ai () is an East Asian Buddhist school of Mahāyāna Buddhism that developed in 6th-century China. The school emphasizes the ''Lotus Sutra's'' doctrine of the "One Vehicle" (''Ekayāna'') as well as Mādhyamaka philosophy ...

school of Buddhism, along with a retinue of spiritual beings. Zhiyi was then in deep meditation on

Jade Spring Hill Jade Spring Hill () is located to the west of the Summer Palace in Beijing, China. It was also formerly known as Jingming Palace (景明宫, "Jǐngmíng gōng"). It contains an imperial garden, the Jingming Garden and is named after the Jade Spri ...

() when he was distracted by Guan Yu's presence. Guan Yu then requested the master to teach him about the dharma. After receiving Buddhist teachings from the master, Guan Yu took refuge in the triple gems and also requested the

Five Precepts The Five precepts ( sa, pañcaśīla, italic=yes; pi, pañcasīla, italic=yes) or five rules of training ( sa, pañcaśikṣapada, italic=yes; pi, pañcasikkhapada, italic=yes) is the most important system of morality for Buddhist lay peo ...

. Henceforth, it is said that Guan Yu made a vow to become a guardian of temples and the dharma. Legends also claim that Guan Yu assisted Zhiyi in the construction of the Yuquan Temple, which still stands today.

Notable Guandi temples worldwide (outside mainland China)

Dongmyo Dongmyo (which literally means "Eastern Shrine") is a shrine in metropolitan Seoul built in honour of the 3rd century Chinese military commander, Guan Yu. The Joseon government embarked on construction in 1599 and completed the work in 1601. The ...

(東關王廟) in Seoul, South Korea (built in 1601) * Miếu Quan Công at Hoi An, Quang Nam, Vietnam (built in 1653) *

State Temple of the Martial God State Temple of the Martial God, also called Tainan Sacrificial Rites Martial Temple () or Grand Guandi Temple, is a temple located in Yongfu Road, West Central District, Tainan, Taiwan. This temple was previously the palace of Koxinga and Prin ...

(祀典武廟) in Tainan, Taiwan (built in 1663) * Kuan Tai Temple (Sam Kai Vui Kun) in Macau (built in 1750) * Gong Wu Shrine, in Bangkok, Thailand
Kwan Sing Bio Temple (Klenteng Kwan Sing Bio) in Tuban, Indonesia (built in 1773)
* Hội quán Nghĩa An at District 5, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam (built in 1819) * Chùa Ông Quan Đế Miếu at Bac Lieu, Vietnam (built in 1835) *

Temple of Kwan Tai The Temple of Kwan Tai (; Yale: ''Móuhdai Míu'', also known as the Mendocino Joss House or Mo Dai Miu) is a Chinese Taoist temple in Mendocino, California, dedicated to Kwan Tai. It is California Historical Landmark #927. The temple was cons ...

in California, United States (built in 1854) * Guandi Temple in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (built in 1887) *

Sam Sing Kung Temple Sam Sing Kung Temple ( zh, 三聖宮) (also known as the Three Saints Temple) is a Chinese temple in Sandakan, Sabah, Malaysia. Built in 1887, the temple is the third oldest temple in Sandakan, after Goddess of Mercy Temple and Tam Kung Temple. ...

in Sabah, Malaysia (built in 1887) * Sze Yup Kwan Ti Temple in Glebe, New South Wales, Australia (built in 1898) *

Yiu Ming Temple Yiu Ming Temple ( zh, 要明廟) is a heritage-listed Chinese temple at 16-22 Retreat Street, Alexandria, City of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. Built in 1908–9, Yiu Ming Temple is one of the oldest surviving Chinese temples in Australi ...

in Alexandria, New South Wales, Australia (built in 1907) *

Yuqing Temple Miaoli Yuqing Temple ( zh, t=苗栗玉清宮, p=Miáolì Yùqīng Gōng) is a temple located in Miaoli City, Miaoli County, Taiwan. The temple is dedicated to Lord Guan or Guansheng Dijun (關聖帝君), the deified form of Guan Yu. History Th ...

in Miaoli, Taiwan (built in 1906) *

Chinese Temple of Dili The Chinese Temple of Dili is a temple used by the Chinese diaspora of Dili, East Timor. The temple was built in 1928, during the Portuguese control of East Timor, and is still in use today. The main shrine of the temple is dedicated to Lord G ...

in East Timor (built in 1928) *

Xingtian Temple Xingtian Temple (; also Xingtian Gong or Hsing Tian Kong) is a popular temple in Zhongshan District, Taipei, Taiwan. This temple is devoted to Lord Guan, the Patron Deity of businessmen, military personnel and policeman. This temple is situate ...

in Taipei, Taiwan (built in 1967) *

Kwan Kung Pavilion Kwan Kung Pavilion () is a temple on Cheung Chau island in Hong Kong. It was built in 1973, See also * Martial temple * Hip Tin temples in Hong Kong * Kwan Tai temples in Hong Kong There are several Kwan Tai Temples () in Hong Kong Hong ...

in Cheung Chau Island, Hong Kong (built in 1973) *

Setia Budi Temple Sezze (from the Latin "Setia") is a town and ''comune'' in the Province of Latina, central Italy, about south of Rome and from the Mediterranean coast. The historical center of Sezze is located on a high hill commanding the Pontine plain. Th ...

at Jalan Irian Barat Medan, Indonesia (built in 1908) *

Santiago Chinese Temple Santiago (, ; ), also known as Santiago de Chile, is the capital and largest city of Chile as well as one of the largest cities in the Americas. It is the center of Chile's most densely populated region, the Santiago Metropolitan Region, whose ...

in Santiago, Isabela, Philippines

In popular culture

Chinese opera

Guan Yu appears in Chinese operas such as ''Huarong Trail'', ''Red Cliffs'', and other excerpts from ''

''. His costume is a green military opera uniform with armour covering his right arm and the knees of his pants. The actor's face is painted red with a few black lines, to represent honour and courage. He also wears a long three-section black beard made of yak hair and carries the

. Traditionally, after the show ends, the actor has to wash his face, burn joss paper, light incense, and pray to Chinese deities.

Film and television

Notable actors who have portrayed Guan Yu in film and television include:

Lu Shuming Lu Shuming (; 15 August 1956 – 1 November 2022) was a Chinese actor best known for his role as Guan Yu on the 1994 television series ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms (TV series), Romance of the Three Kingdoms'', and also garnered recognition f ...

in ''

'' (1994); Wang Yingquan in ''

The Legend of Guan Gong ''The Legend of Guan Gong'' is a 2004 Chinese television series based on the story of Guan Yu, a general of the late Han Dynasty. The series has been released in North America by Image Entertainment. Plot The story begins with Guan Yu's early lif ...

'' (2004);

Ti Lung Ti Lung (born 19 August 1946) is a Hong Kong actor, known for his numerous starring roles in a string of Shaw Brothers Studio's films, particularly '' The Blood Brothers'', ''The Avenging Eagle'', ''Clans of Intrigue'', '' The Duel'', ''The Sentim ...

in '' Three Kingdoms: Resurrection of the Dragon'' (2008); Ba Sen in '' Red Cliff'' (2008–2009);

Yu Rongguang Yu Rongguang (; born 30 August 1958), also known as Ringo Yu, is a Chinese actor and martial artist. He is best known for the title role in '' Iron Monkey'' along with Donnie Yen as well as being featured in films such as '' The East Is Red'', ' ...

in ''

'' (2010);

Donnie Yen Donnie Yen Chi-tan (; born 27 July 1963) is a Hong Kong actor, martial artist, and action director. Yen is one of Hong Kong's top action stars. Yen is widely credited for bringing mixed martial arts (MMA) into the mainstream Asian cinema by cho ...

in ''

The Lost Bladesman ''The Lost Bladesman'' is a 2011 Hong Kong-Chinese historical war and biopic action film loosely based on the story of Guan Yu crossing five passes and slaying six generals in the 14th-century historical novel ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms''. ...

'' (2011); Au Sui-Wai in ''

Three Kingdoms RPG ''Three Kingdoms RPG'' is a 2012 Hong Kong television series produced by TVB, with Lau Kar-ho serving as the drama's executive producer. It stars Kenneth Ma as Szema Shun, a young Hong Kong game addict, who accidentally travels back in time to ...

'' (2012);

Han Geng Han Geng (Chinese: 韩庚; Pinyin: Hán Gēng; ) (born February 9, 1984) is a Chinese Mandopop singer and actor. He started his career in 2001, when he was chosen by S.M. Entertainment to become a member of South Korean boy band Super Junior ...

in ''

'' (2019). Films which make references to Guan Yu include: Stephen Chow's comedy film ''

From Beijing with Love ''From Beijing With Love'' () is a 1994 Hong Kong spy comedy film directed by Stephen Chow and Lee Lik-chi. The film is a very direct spoof of the ''James Bond'' films. Synopsis Golden Gun steals the cranium of China's only dinosaur fossil. ...

'' (1994), which, in one scene, refers to the story of

Hua Tuo Hua Tuo ( 140–208), courtesy name Yuanhua, was a Chinese physician who lived during the late Eastern Han dynasty. The historical texts ''Records of the Three Kingdoms'' and ''Book of the Later Han'' record Hua Tuo as the first person in China ...

performing surgery on Guan Yu's arm;

Zhang Yimou Zhang Yimou (; born 2 April 1950) is a Chinese film director, producer, writer, actor and former cinematographer.Tasker, Yvonne (2002). "Zhang Yimou" i''Fifty Contemporary Filmmakers'' Routledge Publishing, p. 412. . Google Book Search. Retriev ...

's '' Riding Alone for Thousands of Miles'' (2005), in which the fictional story of Guan Yu slaying six generals and crossing five passes forms a major part of the narrative; the horror comedy film '' My Name Is Bruce'' (2007), where Guan Yu's

vengeful spirit In mythology and folklore, a vengeful ghost or vengeful spirit is said to be the spirit of a dead person who returns from the afterlife to seek revenge for a cruel, unnatural or unjust death. In certain cultures where funeral and burial or crem ...

is accidentally set free by a group of teenagers and he begins to terrorise their town.

Games

Guan Yu appears as a playable character in many video games based on ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' which are produced by Koei, including: the strategy game series of the same title as the novel; the action game series ''

'' and ''

Warriors Orochi is a hack and slash video game for PlayStation 2 and Xbox 360, developed by Koei and Omega Force. It is a crossover of two of Koei's popular video game series, ''Dynasty Warriors'' and '' Samurai Warriors'' (specifically ''Dynasty Warriors 5'' a ...

''. Other non-Koei titles in which he also appears include: '' Total War: Three Kingdoms''; '' ''

Puzzle & Dragons is a puzzle video game with role-playing and strategy elements, developed and published by GungHo Online Entertainment for the iOS, Android, and Amazon Fire platforms. ''Puzzle & Dragons'' is a match-three puzzle game, requiring players t ...

''; ''

Sango Fighter The Sango Fighter games are a series of fighting game for DOS made by the Taiwanese Panda Entertainment. Set in the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history, it is very similar to ''Street Fighter'' and ''Samurai Shodown'', but with historical c ...

''; ''

Destiny of an Emperor ''Destiny of an Emperor'', known in Japan as , is a strategy role-playing game by Capcom for the Nintendo Entertainment System based on the ''Tenchi wo Kurau'' manga by Hiroshi Motomiya. It was originally released in Japan in 1989, with an Englis ...

''; and ''

Atlantica Online ''Atlantica Online'' is a free-to-play (F2P) 3D tactical massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG) developed by NDOORS Corporation. The game is currently published bValofe The game's primary setting is a fantasy-themed alternate h ...

''. He is also referenced in '' Emperor: Rise of the Middle Kingdom'', ''

Titan Quest ''Titan Quest'' is an action role playing hack and slash video game developed by Iron Lore Entertainment for Microsoft Windows. It was published by THQ in 2006. It was released on Steam in 2007, and later ported to mobile devices by DotEmu and ...

'', and ''

Koihime Musō is a series of Japanese adult visual novels and strategy video games primarily developed and published by BaseSon for the Windows and is based on the classic 14th century Chinese novel ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' by Luo Guanzhong. ...

''. Guan Yu is referenced in the '' Portal Three Kingdoms'' of the card game ''

Magic: The Gathering ''Magic: The Gathering'' (colloquially known as ''Magic'' or ''MTG'') is a Tabletop game, tabletop and Digital collectible card game, digital Collectible card game, collectable card game created by Richard Garfield. Released in 1993 by Wizards ...

'' on a playable card. The hero Jiang Jun that appears in an add-on for the game ''

For Honor ''For Honor'' is an action game developed and published by Ubisoft. The game allows players to play the roles of historical forms of soldiers and warriors such as knights, samurai, vikings, controlled using a third-person perspective. The game ...

'', developed by

Ubisoft Montreal Ubisoft Divertissements Inc., doing business as Ubisoft Montreal, is a Canadian video game developer and a studio of Ubisoft based in Montreal. The studio was founded in April 1997 as part of Ubisoft's growth into worldwide markets, with sub ...

, is heavily based on Guan Yu. He is introduced in the 2018 DLC ''Marching Fire Expansion'', along with the other characters from the Chinese Wulin faction. The Jiang Jun wields Guan Yu's signature

Guandao A ''guandao'' is a type of Chinese pole weapon that is used in some forms of Chinese martial arts. In Chinese, it is properly called a yanyuedao (偃月刀; lit. "reclining moon blade"), the name under which it always appears in texts from the ...

weapon and is portrayed as a wise older general. Guan Yu is referenced in the 2020 game '' Hades'' by

Supergiant Games Supergiant Games, LLC is an American independent video game developer and publisher based in San Francisco. It was founded in 2009 by Amir Rao and Gavin Simon, and is known for the critically acclaimed games ''Bastion'', '' Transistor'', '' Py ...

. The final "aspect", or form, unlocked for the Eternal Spear weapon is the Aspect of Guan Yu, the Frost Fair Blade, which resembles an ornamented

. The Eternal Spear is said to be the same spear wielded by Guan Yu in the future, taking this form.

Coinage

Guan Yu is a popular motif in collector coins series featuring Ancient warriors. The

Polish Mint The Mint of Poland ( pl, Mennica Polska) is a private company (''Mennica Polska S.A.'') which is the only body permitted to manufacture (mint) coins and investment products in Poland Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a coun ...

issued a 2oz silver coin featuring him in 2019, and another one in 2021.

In modern politics

During the course of price liberalization debates as part of China's

reform and opening up The Chinese economic reform or reform and opening-up (), known in the West as the opening of China, is the program of economic reforms termed "Socialism with Chinese characteristics" and " socialist market economy" in the People's Republic of C ...

Deng Xiaoping Deng Xiaoping (22 August 1904 – 19 February 1997) was a Chinese revolutionary leader, military commander and statesman who served as the paramount leader of the People's Republic of China (PRC) from December 1978 to November 1989. After CCP ...

invoked the fictitious story of Guan Yu crossing five passes and slaying six generals (as described in the novel ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'') as part of his rhetoric. "To the Chinese audience familiar with the famous tale of Lord Guan, there could have been no doubt of Deng's determination to push ahead with radical price reforms." As Deng explained in 1986 to a North Korean delegation:

Notes

References

Citations from volume 36 of the ''Sanguozhi''

Citations from elsewhere in the ''Sanguozhi''

Citations from the ''Sanguozhi zhu''

Other citations

Bibliography

* (Author unknown) (4th century BC). ''

''. * * Chen, Shou (3rd century). '' Records of the Three Kingdoms'' (''Sanguozhi''). *

(4th century). ''

'' (''Huayang Guo Zhi''). * * * * * Luo, Guanzhong (14th century). ''

'' (''Sanguo Yanyi''). * Pei, Songzhi (5th century). '' Annotations to Records of the Three Kingdoms'' (''Sanguozhi zhu''). * * * Sima, Guang (1084). ''

Zizhi Tongjian ''Zizhi Tongjian'' () is a pioneering reference work in Chinese historiography, published in 1084 AD during the Northern Song (960–1127), Northern Song dynasty in the form of a chronicle recording Chinese history from 403 BC to 959&n ...

''. * * *

External links

* * {{DEFAULTSORT:Guan, Yu 220 deaths 3rd-century executions Chinese warriors Deified Chinese people Executed Han dynasty people Executed people from Shanxi Fortune gods Generals under Cao Cao Generals under Liu Bei Han dynasty generals from Shanxi Liu Biao and associates People executed by the Han dynasty by decapitation People from Yuncheng Political office-holders in Hubei Tutelary deities War gods Year of birth unknown Chinese deities Chinese gods Deities in Taoism