In
mathematics
Mathematics is an area of knowledge that includes the topics of numbers, formulas and related structures, shapes and the spaces in which they are contained, and quantities and their changes. These topics are represented in modern mathematics ...
, given two
groups
A group is a number of persons or things that are located, gathered, or classed together.
Groups of people
* Cultural group, a group whose members share the same cultural identity
* Ethnic group, a group whose members share the same ethnic ide ...
, (''G'', ∗) and (''H'', ·), a group homomorphism from (''G'', ∗) to (''H'', ·) is a
function ''h'' : ''G'' → ''H'' such that for all ''u'' and ''v'' in ''G'' it holds that
:
where the group operation on the left side of the equation is that of ''G'' and on the right side that of ''H''.
From this property, one can deduce that ''h'' maps the
identity element
In mathematics, an identity element, or neutral element, of a binary operation operating on a set is an element of the set that leaves unchanged every element of the set when the operation is applied. This concept is used in algebraic structures su ...
''e
G'' of ''G'' to the identity element ''e
H'' of ''H'',
:
and it also maps inverses to inverses in the sense that
:
Hence one can say that ''h'' "is compatible with the group structure".
Older notations for the
homomorphism
In algebra, a homomorphism is a morphism, structure-preserving map (mathematics), map between two algebraic structures of the same type (such as two group (mathematics), groups, two ring (mathematics), rings, or two vector spaces). The word ''homo ...
''h''(''x'') may be ''x''
''h'' or ''x''
''h'', though this may be confused as an index or a general subscript. In
automata theory, sometimes homomorphisms are written to the right of their arguments without parentheses, so that ''h''(''x'') becomes simply
.
In areas of mathematics where one considers groups endowed with additional structure, a ''homomorphism'' sometimes means a map which respects not only the group structure (as above) but also the extra structure. For example, a homomorphism of
topological group
In mathematics, topological groups are logically the combination of groups and topological spaces, i.e. they are groups and topological spaces at the same time, such that the continuity condition for the group operations connects these two st ...
s is often required to be continuous.
Intuition
The purpose of defining a group homomorphism is to create functions that preserve the algebraic structure. An equivalent definition of group homomorphism is: The function ''h'' : ''G'' → ''H'' is a group homomorphism if whenever
: ''a'' ∗ ''b'' = ''c'' we have ''h''(''a'') ⋅ ''h''(''b'') = ''h''(''c'').
In other words, the group ''H'' in some sense has a similar algebraic structure as ''G'' and the homomorphism ''h'' preserves that.
Types
;
Monomorphism: A group homomorphism that is
injective
In mathematics, an injective function (also known as injection, or one-to-one function) is a function that maps distinct elements of its domain to distinct elements; that is, implies . (Equivalently, implies in the equivalent contrapositi ...
(or, one-to-one); i.e., preserves distinctness.
;
Epimorphism: A group homomorphism that is
surjective
In mathematics, a surjective function (also known as surjection, or onto function) is a function that every element can be mapped from element so that . In other words, every element of the function's codomain is the image of one element o ...
(or, onto); i.e., reaches every point in the codomain.
;
Isomorphism
In mathematics, an isomorphism is a structure-preserving mapping between two structures of the same type that can be reversed by an inverse mapping. Two mathematical structures are isomorphic if an isomorphism exists between them. The word i ...
: A group homomorphism that is
bijective
In mathematics, a bijection, also known as a bijective function, one-to-one correspondence, or invertible function, is a function between the elements of two sets, where each element of one set is paired with exactly one element of the other ...
; i.e., injective and surjective. Its inverse is also a group homomorphism. In this case, the groups ''G'' and ''H'' are called ''isomorphic''; they differ only in the notation of their elements and are identical for all practical purposes.
;
Endomorphism
In mathematics, an endomorphism is a morphism from a mathematical object to itself. An endomorphism that is also an isomorphism is an automorphism. For example, an endomorphism of a vector space is a linear map , and an endomorphism of a gr ...
: A group homomorphism, ''h'': ''G'' → ''G''; the domain and codomain are the same. Also called an endomorphism of ''G''.
;
Automorphism
In mathematics, an automorphism is an isomorphism from a mathematical object to itself. It is, in some sense, a symmetry of the object, and a way of mapping the object to itself while preserving all of its structure. The set of all automorphis ...
: A group endomorphism that is bijective, and hence an isomorphism. The set of all
automorphism
In mathematics, an automorphism is an isomorphism from a mathematical object to itself. It is, in some sense, a symmetry of the object, and a way of mapping the object to itself while preserving all of its structure. The set of all automorphis ...
s of a group ''G'', with functional composition as operation, itself forms a group, the ''automorphism group'' of ''G''. It is denoted by Aut(''G''). As an example, the automorphism group of (Z, +) contains only two elements, the identity transformation and multiplication with −1; it is isomorphic to (Z/2Z, +).
Image and kernel
We define the ''
kernel of h'' to be the set of elements in ''G'' which are mapped to the identity in ''H''
:
and the ''
image
An image is a visual representation of something. It can be two-dimensional, three-dimensional, or somehow otherwise feed into the visual system to convey information. An image can be an artifact, such as a photograph or other two-dimensio ...
of h'' to be
:
The kernel and image of a homomorphism can be interpreted as measuring how close it is to being an isomorphism. The
first isomorphism theorem states that the image of a group homomorphism, ''h''(''G'') is isomorphic to the quotient group ''G''/ker ''h''.
The kernel of h is a
normal subgroup
In abstract algebra, a normal subgroup (also known as an invariant subgroup or self-conjugate subgroup) is a subgroup that is invariant under conjugation by members of the group of which it is a part. In other words, a subgroup N of the group G ...
of ''G'' and the image of h is a
subgroup
In group theory, a branch of mathematics, given a group ''G'' under a binary operation ∗, a subset ''H'' of ''G'' is called a subgroup of ''G'' if ''H'' also forms a group under the operation ∗. More precisely, ''H'' is a subgroup ...
of ''H'':
:
If and only if , the homomorphism, ''h'', is a
''group monomorphism''; i.e., ''h'' is injective (one-to-one). Injection directly gives that there is a unique element in the kernel, and, conversely, a unique element in the kernel gives injection:
:
Examples
* Consider the
cyclic group
In group theory, a branch of abstract algebra in pure mathematics, a cyclic group or monogenous group is a group, denoted C''n'', that is generated by a single element. That is, it is a set of invertible elements with a single associative bina ...
Z = (Z/3Z, +) = (, +) and the group of integers (Z, +). The map ''h'' : Z → Z/3Z with ''h''(''u'') = ''u''
mod 3 is a group homomorphism. It is
surjective
In mathematics, a surjective function (also known as surjection, or onto function) is a function that every element can be mapped from element so that . In other words, every element of the function's codomain is the image of one element o ...
and its kernel consists of all integers which are divisible by 3.
* The
exponential map yields a group homomorphism from the group of
real number
In mathematics, a real number is a number that can be used to measure a ''continuous'' one-dimensional quantity such as a distance, duration or temperature. Here, ''continuous'' means that values can have arbitrarily small variations. Every ...
s R with addition to the group of non-zero real numbers R* with multiplication. The kernel is and the image consists of the positive real numbers.
* The exponential map also yields a group homomorphism from the group of
complex number
In mathematics, a complex number is an element of a number system that extends the real numbers with a specific element denoted , called the imaginary unit and satisfying the equation i^= -1; every complex number can be expressed in the fo ...
s C with addition to the group of non-zero complex numbers C* with multiplication. This map is surjective and has the kernel , as can be seen from
Euler's formula
Euler's formula, named after Leonhard Euler, is a mathematical formula in complex analysis that establishes the fundamental relationship between the trigonometric functions and the complex exponential function. Euler's formula states that ...
. Fields like R and C that have homomorphisms from their additive group to their multiplicative group are thus called
exponential fields.
Category of groups
If and are group homomorphisms, then so is . This shows that the class of all groups, together with group homomorphisms as morphisms, forms a
category
Category, plural categories, may refer to:
Philosophy and general uses
*Categorization, categories in cognitive science, information science and generally
* Category of being
* ''Categories'' (Aristotle)
* Category (Kant)
* Categories (Peirce) ...
.
Homomorphisms of abelian groups
If ''G'' and ''H'' are
abelian
Abelian may refer to:
Mathematics Group theory
* Abelian group, a group in which the binary operation is commutative
** Category of abelian groups (Ab), has abelian groups as objects and group homomorphisms as morphisms
* Metabelian group, a grou ...
(i.e., commutative) groups, then the set of all group homomorphisms from ''G'' to ''H'' is itself an abelian group: the sum of two homomorphisms is defined by
:(''h'' + ''k'')(''u'') = ''h''(''u'') + ''k''(''u'') for all ''u'' in ''G''.
The commutativity of ''H'' is needed to prove that is again a group homomorphism.
The addition of homomorphisms is compatible with the composition of homomorphisms in the following sense: if ''f'' is in , ''h'', ''k'' are elements of , and ''g'' is in , then
: and .
Since the composition is
associative
In mathematics, the associative property is a property of some binary operations, which means that rearranging the parentheses in an expression will not change the result. In propositional logic, associativity is a valid rule of replacement ...
, this shows that the set End(''G'') of all endomorphisms of an abelian group forms a
ring, the ''
endomorphism ring
In mathematics, the endomorphisms of an abelian group ''X'' form a ring. This ring is called the endomorphism ring of ''X'', denoted by End(''X''); the set of all homomorphisms of ''X'' into itself. Addition of endomorphisms arises naturally in a ...
'' of ''G''. For example, the endomorphism ring of the abelian group consisting of the
direct sum
The direct sum is an operation between structures in abstract algebra, a branch of mathematics. It is defined differently, but analogously, for different kinds of structures. To see how the direct sum is used in abstract algebra, consider a mor ...
of ''m'' copies of Z/''n''Z is isomorphic to the ring of ''m''-by-''m''
matrices
Matrix most commonly refers to:
* ''The Matrix'' (franchise), an American media franchise
** ''The Matrix'', a 1999 science-fiction action film
** "The Matrix", a fictional setting, a virtual reality environment, within ''The Matrix'' (franchis ...
with entries in Z/''n''Z. The above compatibility also shows that the category of all abelian groups with group homomorphisms forms a
preadditive category
In mathematics, specifically in category theory, a preadditive category is
another name for an Ab-category, i.e., a category that is enriched over the category of abelian groups, Ab.
That is, an Ab-category C is a category such that
every hom- ...
; the existence of direct sums and well-behaved kernels makes this category the prototypical example of an
abelian category
In mathematics, an abelian category is a category in which morphisms and objects can be added and in which kernels and cokernels exist and have desirable properties. The motivating prototypical example of an abelian category is the category of ...
.
See also
*
Fundamental theorem on homomorphisms
*
Ring homomorphism
In ring theory, a branch of abstract algebra, a ring homomorphism is a structure-preserving function between two rings. More explicitly, if ''R'' and ''S'' are rings, then a ring homomorphism is a function such that ''f'' is:
:addition preser ...
*
Quasimorphism
References
*
*
External links
*{{MathWorld, title=Group Homomorphism, urlname=GroupHomomorphism, author=Rowland, Todd, author2=Weisstein, Eric W., name-list-style=amp
Group theory
Morphisms