The Greco-Roman civilization (; also Greco-Roman culture; spelled Graeco-Roman in the
Commonwealth), as understood by modern scholars and writers, includes the geographical regions and countries that culturally—and so historically—were directly and intimately influenced by the language, culture, government and religion of the
Greeks and
Romans. A better-known term is
classical civilization. In exact terms the area refers to the
"Mediterranean world", the extensive tracts of land centered on the
Mediterranean
The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean Basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Western and Southern Europe and Anatolia, on the south by North Africa, and on ...
and
Black Sea Basins, the "swimming pool and spa" of the Greeks and the Romans, in which those peoples' cultural perceptions, ideas, and sensitivities became dominant in
classical antiquity
Classical antiquity (also the classical era, classical period or classical age) is the period of cultural history between the 8th century BC and the 5th century AD centred on the Mediterranean Sea, comprising the interlocking civilizations of ...
.
That process was aided by the universal adoption of
Greek as the language of intellectual culture and commerce in the
Eastern Mediterranean and of
Latin
Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through ...
as the language of
public administration
Public Administration (a form of governance) or Public Policy and Administration (an academic discipline) is the implementation of public policy, administration of government establishment ( public governance), management of non-profit es ...
and of
forensic advocacy, especially in the Western Mediterranean.
Greek and Latin were never the native languages of many or most of the rural peasants, who formed the great majority of the
Roman Empire
The Roman Empire ( la, Imperium Romanum ; grc-gre, Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων, Basileía tôn Rhōmaíōn) was the post-Roman Republic, Republican period of ancient Rome. As a polity, it included large territorial holdings aro ...
's population, but they became the languages of the
urban and
cosmopolitan
Cosmopolitan may refer to:
Food and drink
* Cosmopolitan (cocktail), also known as a "Cosmo"
History
* Rootless cosmopolitan, a Soviet derogatory epithet during Joseph Stalin's anti-Semitic campaign of 1949–1953
Hotels and resorts
* Cosmopoli ...
elites
In political and sociological theory, the elite (french: élite, from la, eligere, to select or to sort out) are a small group of powerful people who hold a disproportionate amount of wealth, privilege, political power, or skill in a group. ...
and the Empire's
lingua franca, even if only as corrupt or multifarious dialects for those who lived within the large territories and populations outside the
Macedonian settlements and the
Roman colonies. All Roman citizens of note and accomplishment, regardless of their ethnic extractions, spoke and wrote in Greek or Latin. Examples include the Roman jurist and imperial chancellor
Ulpian, who was of
Phoenician origin; the mathematician and geographer
Claudius Ptolemy, who was of
Greco-Egyptian origin; and the famous post-Constantinian thinkers
John Chrysostom and
Augustine, who were of
Syrian and
Berber origins respectively. Note too the historian
Josephus Flavius, who was of
Jewish origin but spoke and wrote in Greek.
Cores
Based on the above definition, the "cores" of the Greco-Roman world can be confidently stated to have been the
Italian Peninsula,
Greece
Greece,, or , romanized: ', officially the Hellenic Republic, is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the southern tip of the Balkans, and is located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Greece shares land borders wi ...
,
Cyprus, the
Iberian Peninsula
The Iberian Peninsula (),
**
* Aragonese and Occitan: ''Peninsula Iberica''
**
**
* french: Péninsule Ibérique
* mwl, Península Eibérica
* eu, Iberiar penintsula also known as Iberia, is a peninsula in southwestern Europe, def ...
, the
Anatolian Peninsula (modern-day
Turkey
Turkey ( tr, Türkiye ), officially the Republic of Türkiye ( tr, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti, links=no ), is a transcontinental country located mainly on the Anatolian Peninsula in Western Asia, with a small portion on the Balkan Peninsula ...
),
Gaul
Gaul ( la, Gallia) was a region of Western Europe first described by the Romans. It was inhabited by Celtic and Aquitani tribes, encompassing present-day France, Belgium, Luxembourg, most of Switzerland, parts of Northern Italy (only during ...
(modern-day
France
France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of Overseas France, overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic Ocean, Atlantic, Pacific Ocean, Pac ...
), the
Syrian region
Syria (Hieroglyphic Luwian: 𔒂𔒠 ''Sura/i''; gr, Συρία) or Sham ( ar, ٱلشَّام, ash-Shām) is the name of a historical region located east of the Mediterranean Sea in Western Asia, broadly synonymous with the Levant. Other ...
(modern-day
Levantine countries of
Israel
Israel (; he, יִשְׂרָאֵל, ; ar, إِسْرَائِيل, ), officially the State of Israel ( he, מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל, label=none, translit=Medīnat Yīsrāʾēl; ), is a country in Western Asia. It is situated ...
,
Central and Northern Syria,
Lebanon and
Palestine),
Egypt
Egypt ( ar, مصر , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a List of transcontinental countries, transcontinental country spanning the North Africa, northeast corner of Africa and Western Asia, southwest corner of Asia via a land bridg ...
and
Roman Africa (corresponding to modern-day
Tunisia,
Eastern Algeria and
Western Libya). Occupying the periphery of that world were the so-called "Roman Germany" (the modern-day
Alpine countries of
Austria
Austria, , bar, Östareich officially the Republic of Austria, is a country in the southern part of Central Europe, lying in the Eastern Alps. It is a federation of nine states, one of which is the capital, Vienna, the most populous ...
and
Switzerland
). Swiss law does not designate a ''capital'' as such, but the federal parliament and government are installed in Bern, while other federal institutions, such as the federal courts, are in other cities (Bellinzona, Lausanne, Luzern, Neuchâtel ...
and the ''
Agri Decumates'', the territory between the
Main,
Rhine
), Surselva, Graubünden, Switzerland
, source1_coordinates=
, source1_elevation =
, source2 = Rein Posteriur/Hinterrhein
, source2_location = Paradies Glacier, Graubünden, Switzerland
, source2_coordinates=
, source ...
and
Danube River
A river is a natural flowing watercourse, usually freshwater, flowing towards an ocean, sea, lake or another river. In some cases, a river flows into the ground and becomes dry at the end of its course without reaching another body of ...
s), the ''
Illyricum'' (modern-day
Northern Albania,
Montenegro
)
, image_map = Europe-Montenegro.svg
, map_caption =
, image_map2 =
, capital = Podgorica
, coordinates =
, largest_city = capital
, official_languages = ...
,
Bosnia and Herzegovina and the coast of
Croatia
, image_flag = Flag of Croatia.svg
, image_coat = Coat of arms of Croatia.svg
, anthem = " Lijepa naša domovino"("Our Beautiful Homeland")
, image_map =
, map_caption =
, capi ...
), the
Macedonian region,
Thrace (corresponding to modern-day
Southeastern Bulgaria,
Northeastern Greece and the
European portion of
Turkey
Turkey ( tr, Türkiye ), officially the Republic of Türkiye ( tr, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti, links=no ), is a transcontinental country located mainly on the Anatolian Peninsula in Western Asia, with a small portion on the Balkan Peninsula ...
),
Moesia (roughly corresponding to modern-day
Central Serbia,
Kosovo,
Northern Macedonia,
Northern Bulgaria
Northern Bulgaria ( bg, Северна България, Severna Bylgarija), also called Moesia ( bg, Мизия, ''Mizija'') is the northern half of Bulgaria, located to the north of the main ridge of the Balkan Mountains which conventionally se ...
and
Romanian Dobrudja), and
Pannonia (corresponding to modern-day
Western Hungary, the
Austrian ''Länder'' of
Burgenland,
Eastern Slovenia and
Northern Serbia).
Also included were
Dacia
Dacia (, ; ) was the land inhabited by the Dacians, its core in Transylvania, stretching to the Danube in the south, the Black Sea in the east, and the Tisza in the west. The Carpathian Mountains were located in the middle of Dacia. It ...
(roughly modern-day
Romania
Romania ( ; ro, România ) is a country located at the crossroads of Central Europe, Central, Eastern Europe, Eastern, and Southeast Europe, Southeastern Europe. It borders Bulgaria to the south, Ukraine to the north, Hungary to the west, S ...
and
Moldavia),
Mauretania (modern-day
Morocco
Morocco (),, ) officially the Kingdom of Morocco, is the westernmost country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It overlooks the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and has land borders with Algeria to A ...
,
Western Algeria and
Northern Mauritania),
Jordan,
Southern Syria and Egypt's
Sinai Peninsula) and the Tauric Chersonesus (modern-day
Crimea
Crimea, crh, Къырым, Qırım, grc, Κιμμερία / Ταυρική, translit=Kimmería / Taurikḗ ( ) is a peninsula in Ukraine, on the northern coast of the Black Sea, that has been occupied by Russia since 2014. It has a p ...
and the coast of
Ukraine
Ukraine ( uk, Україна, Ukraïna, ) is a country in Eastern Europe. It is the second-largest European country after Russia, which it borders to the east and northeast. Ukraine covers approximately . Prior to the ongoing Russian inva ...
).
The Greco-Roman world had another "world" or empire to its east, the Persians, with which there was constant interaction:
Xenophon,
The Anabasis, the March Up Country, the
Greco-Persian wars, the famous battles of
Marathon and
Salamis, the Greek tragedy ''
The Persians'' by
Aeschylus,
Alexander the Great's
defeat of the Persian emperor
Darius III and conquest of the
Persian empire, or the later Roman generals' difficulties with the Persian armies, such as
Pompey the Great, and of
Marcus Licinius Crassus (conqueror of the slave general
Spartacus), who was defeated in the field by a Persian force and was beheaded by them.
Culture
In the schools of
art,
philosophy
Philosophy (from , ) is the systematized study of general and fundamental questions, such as those about existence, reason, knowledge, values, mind, and language. Such questions are often posed as problems to be studied or resolved. ...
, and
rhetoric, the foundations of
education
Education is a purposeful activity directed at achieving certain aims, such as transmitting knowledge or fostering skills and character traits. These aims may include the development of understanding, rationality, kindness, and honesty ...
were transmitted throughout the lands of Greek and Roman rule. Within its educated class, spanning all of the "Greco-Roman" eras, the testimony of literary borrowings and influences are overwhelming proofs of a mantle of mutual knowledge. For example, several hundred
papyrus volumes found in a Roman villa at
Herculaneum are in Greek. The lives of
Cicero and
Julius Caesar are examples of Romans who frequented schools in Greece.
The installation, both in
Greek and
Latin
Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through ...
, of
Augustus
Caesar Augustus (born Gaius Octavius; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian, was the first Roman emperor; he reigned from 27 BC until his death in AD 14. He is known for being the founder of the Roman Pr ...
's monumental eulogy, the
Res Gestae, exemplifies the official recognition of the dual vehicles for the common culture. The familiarity of figures from Roman legend and history in the ''
Parallel Lives'' by
Plutarch is one example of the extent to which "
universal history" was then synonymous with the accomplishments of famous
Latins and
Hellenes. Most educated Romans were likely bilingual in Greek and Latin.
Architecture
Architecture refers to the art of designing and building. Graeco-Roman architecture in the Roman world followed the principles and style that had been established by ancient Greece. That era's most representative building was the temple. Other prominent structures that represented that style included government buildings like the
Roman Senate. The three primary styles of column design used in temples in classical Greece were
Doric Doric may refer to:
* Doric, of or relating to the Dorians of ancient Greece
** Doric Greek, the dialects of the Dorians
* Doric order, a style of ancient Greek architecture
* Doric mode, a synonym of Dorian mode
* Doric dialect (Scotland)
* Doric ...
,
Ionic, and
Corinthian. Some examples of Doric architecture are the
Parthenon and the
Temple of Hephaestus in Athens, and the
Erechtheum, next to the Parthenon, is Ionic.
Politics
By AD 211, with
Caracalla's edict known as the ''
Constitutio Antoniniana
The ''Constitutio Antoniniana'' ( Latin for: "Constitution r Edictof Antoninus") (also called the Edict of Caracalla or the Antonine Constitution) was an edict issued in AD 212, by the Roman Emperor Caracalla. It declared that all free men in t ...
'', all of the empire's free inhabitants became citizens. As a result, even after the
Fall of the Western Roman Empire, the people who remained within the empire continued to call themselves Romans, especially since the most powerful institution in Western Europe had the Roman Catholic Church of Rome. They continued to call themselves ''
Rhomaioi''. (''
Hellenes'' had been referring to pagan, or non-Christian, Greeks until the
Fourth Crusade.) The ensuing births of successor breakaways and the decisive and irreversible shrinking of
Byzantine Greek realms finally led to the predecessor of
Greek nationalism through the
Ottoman era and even into modern times.
Religion
Greco-Roman mythology, sometimes called
classical mythology, is the result of the syncretism between Roman and Greek myths, spanning the period of Great Greece at the end of
Roman paganism
Religion in ancient Rome consisted of varying imperial and provincial religious practices, which were followed both by the people of Rome as well as those who were brought under its rule.
The Romans thought of themselves as highly religious, ...
. Along with
philosophy
Philosophy (from , ) is the systematized study of general and fundamental questions, such as those about existence, reason, knowledge, values, mind, and language. Such questions are often posed as problems to be studied or resolved. ...
and
Political theory, mythology is one of the greatest contributions of
Classical antiquity
Classical antiquity (also the classical era, classical period or classical age) is the period of cultural history between the 8th century BC and the 5th century AD centred on the Mediterranean Sea, comprising the interlocking civilizations of ...
to
Western society.
[Entry on " mythology" in ''The Classical Tradition'', edited by Anthony Grafton, Glenn W. Most, and Salvatore Settis (Harvard University Press, 2010), '' and passim''.]
From a historical point of view,
early Christianity was born in the world of Greco-Roman influence which had a massive influence on
Christian culture.
See also
*
Classical Antiquity
Classical antiquity (also the classical era, classical period or classical age) is the period of cultural history between the 8th century BC and the 5th century AD centred on the Mediterranean Sea, comprising the interlocking civilizations of ...
*
History of Western civilization before AD 500
Western civilization describes the development of human civilization beginning in Ancient Greece, and generally spreading westwards. However, Western civilization in its more strictly defined sphere traces its roots back to Rome and the Western ...
*
Classical mythology
*
Greco-Roman mysteries
*
Greek and Roman Egypt
*
Hellenistic Greece
*
Legacy of the Roman Empire
*
List of Greco-Roman geographers
;Pre-Hellenistic Classical Greece
*Homer
* Anaximander
*Hecataeus of Miletus
*Massaliote Periplus
*Scylax of Caryanda (6th century BC)
*Herodotus
;Hellenistic period
*Pytheas (died c. 310 BC)
*''Periplus of Pseudo-Scylax'' (3rd or 4th century BC ...
*
Magic in the Greco-Roman world
References
Sources
*Sir William Smith (ed). ''Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography''. London: Spottiswoode and Co, 1873.
*Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth (ed). ''Oxford Classical Dictionary''. Oxford University Press, 2003.
{{DEFAULTSORT:Greco-Roman World
History of the Mediterranean
History of Greek Antiquity by period
Ancient Rome by period
Classical civilizations
Classical antiquity
Western culture
Ancient history by region