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NASA's series of Great Observatories satellites are four large, powerful space-based astronomical telescopes launched between 1990 and 2003. They were built with different technology to examine specific wavelength/energy regions of the electromagnetic spectrum: gamma rays, X-rays,
visible Visibility, in meteorology, is a measure of the distance at which an object or light can be seen. Visibility may also refer to: * A measure of turbidity in water quality control * Interferometric visibility, which quantifies interference contrast ...
and ultraviolet light, and infrared light. * The Hubble Space Telescope (HST) primarily observes visible light and near-ultraviolet. It was launched in 1990 aboard the Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' during
STS-31 STS-31 was the 35th mission of the NASA Space Shuttle program. The primary purpose of this mission was the deployment of the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) into low Earth orbit. The mission used the Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' (the tenth missio ...
. In 1997 the STS-82 servicing mission added capability in the near-infrared range, and in 2009 the STS-125 mission fixed the telescope and extended its projected service life. * The Compton Gamma Ray Observatory (CGRO) primarily observed gamma rays, though it extended into hard x-rays as well. It was launched in 1991 aboard '' Atlantis'' during STS-37 and was de-orbited in 2000 after a gyroscope failed. * The Chandra X-ray Observatory (CXO) primarily observes soft X-rays. It was launched in 1999 aboard ''
Columbia Columbia may refer to: * Columbia (personification), the historical female national personification of the United States, and a poetic name for America Places North America Natural features * Columbia Plateau, a geologic and geographic region in ...
'' during STS-93 into an elliptical high-Earth orbit, and was initially named the Advanced X-ray Astronomical Facility (AXAF). * The
Spitzer Space Telescope The Spitzer Space Telescope, formerly the Space Infrared Telescope Facility (SIRTF), was an infrared space telescope launched in 2003. Operations ended on 30 January 2020. Spitzer was the third space telescope dedicated to infrared astronomy, f ...
(SST) observed the infrared spectrum. It was launched in 2003 aboard a
Delta II rocket Delta II was an expendable launch system, originally designed and built by McDonnell Douglas. Delta II was part of the Delta rocket family and entered service in 1989. Delta II vehicles included the Delta 6000, and the two later Delta 7000 va ...
into an Earth-trailing solar orbit. Depletion of its liquid helium coolant in 2009 reduced its functionality, leaving it with only two short-wavelength imaging modules. It was removed from service and placed into safe-mode on January 30, 2020.


Great Observatories

The Hubble Space Telescope and Chandra X-ray Observatory continue to operate as of April 2022. Hubble was originally intended to be retrieved and returned to Earth by the Space Shuttle, but the retrieval plan was later abandoned. On 31 October 2006, NASA Administrator Michael D. Griffin gave the go-ahead for a final refurbishment mission. The 11-day STS-125 mission by Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', launched on 11 May 2009, installed fresh batteries, replaced all gyroscopes, replaced a command computer, fixed several instruments, and installed the Wide Field Camera 3 and the Cosmic Origins Spectrograph. One of the three
gyroscope A gyroscope (from Ancient Greek γῦρος ''gŷros'', "round" and σκοπέω ''skopéō'', "to look") is a device used for measuring or maintaining orientation and angular velocity. It is a spinning wheel or disc in which the axis of rota ...
s on the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory failed in December 1999. Although the observatory was fully functional with two gyroscopes, NASA judged that failure of a second gyroscope would result in inability to control the satellite during its eventual return to Earth due to orbital decay. NASA chose instead to preemptively de-orbit Compton on 4 June 2000. Parts that survived reentry splashed into the Pacific Ocean. Spitzer was the only one of the Great Observatories not launched by the Space Shuttle. It was originally intended to be so launched, but after the ''Challenger'' disaster, the
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LH2 Liquid hydrogen (LH2 or LH2) is the liquid state of the element hydrogen. Hydrogen is found naturally in the molecular H2 form. To exist as a liquid, H2 must be cooled below its critical point of 33  K. However, for it to be in a fully liq ...
/ LOX upper stage that would have been required to push it into a
heliocentric orbit A heliocentric orbit (also called circumsolar orbit) is an orbit around the barycenter of the Solar System, which is usually located within or very near the surface of the Sun. All planets, comets, and asteroids in the Solar System, and the Sun i ...
was banned from Shuttle use.
Titan Titan most often refers to: * Titan (moon), the largest moon of Saturn * Titans, a race of deities in Greek mythology Titan or Titans may also refer to: Arts and entertainment Fictional entities Fictional locations * Titan in fiction, fictiona ...
and Atlas launch vehicles were canceled for cost reasons. After redesign and lightening, it was launched by a Delta II launch vehicle instead. It was called the Space Infrared Telescope Facility (SIRTF) before launch.


History of the program


Hubble Space Telescope

The history of the Hubble Space Telescope can be traced back to 1946, when the astronomer Lyman Spitzer wrote the paper ''Astronomical advantages of an extraterrestrial observatory''. Spitzer devoted much of his career to pushing for a space telescope. The 1966–1972 Orbiting Astronomical Observatory missions demonstrated the important role space-based observations could play in astronomy. In 1968, NASA developed firm plans for a space-based reflecting telescope with a 3-meter mirror, known provisionally as the Large Orbiting Telescope or Large Space Telescope (LST), with a launch slated for 1979. Congress eventually approved funding of US$36 million for 1978, and the design of the LST began in earnest, aiming for a launch date of 1983. During the early 1980s, the telescope was named after
Edwin Hubble Edwin Powell Hubble (November 20, 1889 – September 28, 1953) was an Americans, American astronomer. He played a crucial role in establishing the fields of extragalactic astronomy and observational cosmology. Hubble proved that many objects ...
.


Gamma ray program

Gamma rays had been examined above the atmosphere by several early space missions. During its High Energy Astronomy Observatory Program in 1977, NASA announced plans to build a "great observatory" for gamma-ray astronomy. The Gamma Ray Observatory (GRO), renamed Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory (CGRO), was designed to take advantage of the major advances in detector technology during the 1980s. Following 14 years of effort, the CGRO was launched on 5 April 1991.


Chandra X-ray Observatory history

In 1976 the Chandra X-ray Observatory (called AXAF at the time) was proposed to NASA by Riccardo Giacconi and
Harvey Tananbaum Harvey, Harveys or Harvey's may refer to: Arts, entertainment, and media * ''Harvey'' (play), a 1944 play by Mary Chase about a man befriended by an invisible anthropomorphic rabbit * Harvey Awards ("Harveys"), one of the most important awards ...
. Preliminary work began the following year at
Marshall Space Flight Center The George C. Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC), located in Redstone Arsenal, Alabama (Huntsville postal address), is the U.S. government's civilian rocketry and spacecraft propulsion research center. As the largest NASA center, MSFC's first ...
(MSFC) and the
Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory The Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory (SAO) is a research institute of the Smithsonian Institution, concentrating on astrophysical studies including galactic and extragalactic astronomy, cosmology, solar, earth and planetary sciences, the ...
(SAO). In the meantime, in 1978, NASA launched the first imaging X-ray telescope, Einstein Observatory (HEAO-2), into orbit. Work continued on the Chandra project through the 1980s and 1990s. In 1992, to reduce costs, the spacecraft was redesigned. Four of the twelve planned mirrors were eliminated, as were two of the six scientific instruments. Chandra's planned orbit was changed to an elliptical one, reaching one third of the way to the Moon's at its farthest point. This eliminated the possibility of improvement or repair by the Space Shuttle but put the observatory above the Earth's radiation belts for most of its orbit.


Spitzer history

By the early 1970s, astronomers began to consider the possibility of placing an infrared telescope above the obscuring effects of atmosphere of Earth. Most of the early concepts, envisioned repeated flights aboard the NASA Space Shuttle. This approach was developed in an era when the Shuttle program was presumed to be capable of supporting weekly flights of up to 30 days duration. In 1979, a National Research Council of the
National Academy of Sciences The National Academy of Sciences (NAS) is a United States nonprofit, non-governmental organization. NAS is part of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, along with the National Academy of Engineering (NAE) and the Nati ...
report, ''A Strategy for Space Astronomy and Astrophysics for the 1980s'', identified a Shuttle Infrared Telescope Facility (SIRTF) as "one of two major astrophysics facilities
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for Spacelab," a Shuttle-borne platform. The launch of the Infrared Astronomical Satellite, an Explorer-class satellite designed to conduct the first infrared survey of the sky led to anticipation of an instrument using new infrared detector technology. By September 1983, NASA was considering the "possibility of a long duration ree-flyerSIRTF mission". The 1985 Spacelab-2 flight aboard STS-51-F confirmed the Shuttle environment was not well suited to an onboard infrared telescope, and a free-flying design was better. The first word of the name was changed from ''Shuttle'' so it would be called the ''Space'' Infrared Telescope Facility.


Great Observatory origin

The concept of a Great Observatory program was first proposed in the 1979 NRC report "A Strategy for Space Astronomy and Astrophysics for the 1980s". This report laid the essential groundwork for the Great Observatories and was chaired by Peter Meyer (through June 1977) and then by Harlan J. Smith (through publication). In the mid-1980s, it was further advanced by all of the astrophysics Division Directors at NASA headquarters, including Frank Martin and Charlie Pellerin. NASA's "Great Observatories" program used four separate satellites, each designed to cover a different part of the spectrum in ways which terrestrial systems could not. This perspective enabled the proposed X-ray and InfraRed observatories to be appropriately seen as a continuation of the astronomical program begun with Hubble and CGRO rather than competitors or replacements. [Another citation for this paragraph should be two explanatory documents published by NASA and created for the NASA Astrophysics Division, then led by Charie Pellerin, and the NASA Astrophysics Management Working Group in the 1980s. Both are titled ''The Great Observatories for Space Astrophysics''; the first bears NASA document number 21M585 and the second is NP-128. Now hard to find, they laid out the rationale for the suite of observatories and questions that could be addressed across the spectrum. They had an important role in the campaign to win and sustain approval for the four telescopes. Co-authors were astrophysicist Martin Harwit and writer Valerie Neal, working in collaboration with a larger group of scientists in the mentioned Working Group.]


Strengths

Each observatory was designed to push the state of technology in its intended wavelength region. Since the Earth's atmosphere prevents X-ray astronomy, X-rays, gamma-rays and far-infrared
radiation In physics, radiation is the emission or transmission of energy in the form of waves or particles through space or through a material medium. This includes: * ''electromagnetic radiation'', such as radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visi ...
from reaching the ground, space missions were essential for the Compton, Chandra and Spitzer observatories. Hubble also benefits from being above the atmosphere, as the atmosphere blurs ground-based observations of very faint objects, decreasing spatial resolution (however brighter objects can be imaged in much higher resolution than by Hubble from the ground using
astronomical interferometer An astronomical interferometer or telescope array is a set of separate telescopes, mirror segments, or radio telescope antenna (radio), antennas that work together as a single telescope to provide higher resolution images of astronomical objects ...
s or adaptive optics). Larger, ground-based telescopes have only recently matched Hubble in resolution for near-infrared wavelengths of faint objects. Being above the atmosphere eliminates the problem of airglow, allowing Hubble to make observations of ultrafaint objects. Ground-based telescopes cannot compensate for airglow on ultrafaint objects, and so very faint objects require unwieldy and inefficient exposure times. Hubble can also observe at ultraviolet wavelengths which do not penetrate the atmosphere. Compton observed in gamma rays, which do not penetrate the lower atmosphere. It was much larger than any gamma-ray instruments flown on the previous HEAO missions, opening entirely new areas of observation. It had four instruments covering the 20 keV to 30 GeV energy range, which complemented each other's sensitivities, resolutions, and fields of view. Gamma rays are emitted by various high-energy and high-temperature sources, such as
black hole A black hole is a region of spacetime where gravitation, gravity is so strong that nothing, including light or other Electromagnetic radiation, electromagnetic waves, has enough energy to escape it. The theory of general relativity predicts t ...
s,
pulsar A pulsar (from ''pulsating radio source'') is a highly magnetized rotating neutron star that emits beams of electromagnetic radiation out of its magnetic poles. This radiation can be observed only when a beam of emission is pointing toward Ea ...
s, and
supernovae A supernova is a powerful and luminous explosion of a star. It has the plural form supernovae or supernovas, and is abbreviated SN or SNe. This transient astronomical event occurs during the last evolutionary stages of a massive star or when a ...
. Chandra similarly had no ground predecessors. It followed the three NASA HEAO Program satellites, notably the highly successful Einstein Observatory, which was the first to demonstrate the power of grazing-incidence, focusing X-ray optics, giving spatial resolution an order of magnitude better than collimated instruments (comparable to optical telescopes), with an enormous improvement in sensitivity. Chandra's large size, high orbit, and sensitive CCDs allowed observations of very faint X-ray sources. Spitzer also observes at wavelength largely inaccessible to ground telescopes. It was preceded in space by NASA's smaller IRAS mission and
European Space Agency , owners = , headquarters = Paris, Île-de-France, France , coordinates = , spaceport = Guiana Space Centre , seal = File:ESA emblem seal.png , seal_size = 130px , image = Views in the Main Control Room (1205 ...
(ESA)'s large ISO telescope. Spitzer's instruments took advantage of the rapid advances in infrared detector technology since IRAS, combined with its large aperture, favorable fields of view, and long life. Science returns have been accordingly outstanding. Infrared observations are necessary for very distant astronomical objects where all the visible light is
redshift In physics, a redshift is an increase in the wavelength, and corresponding decrease in the frequency and photon energy, of electromagnetic radiation (such as light). The opposite change, a decrease in wavelength and simultaneous increase in f ...
ed to infrared wavelengths, for cool objects which emit little visible light, and for regions optically obscured by dust.


Impact

All four telescopes have had a substantial impact on astronomy. The opening up of new wavebands to high resolution, high sensitivity observations by the Compton, Chandra and Spitzer has revolutionized our understanding of a wide range of astronomical objects, and has led to the detection of thousands of new, interesting objects. Hubble has had a much larger public and media impact than the other telescopes, although at optical wavelengths Hubble has provided a more modest improvement in sensitivity and resolution over existing instruments. Hubble's capability for uniform high-quality imaging of any astronomical object at any time has allowed accurate surveys and comparisons of large numbers of astronomical objects. The Hubble Deep Field observations have been very important for studies of distant galaxies, as they provide rest-frame ultraviolet images of these objects with a similar number of pixels across the galaxies as previous ultraviolet images of closer galaxies, allowing direct comparison. The
James Webb Space Telescope The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) is a space telescope which conducts infrared astronomy. As the largest optical telescope in space, its high resolution and sensitivity allow it to view objects too old, distant, or faint for the Hubble Spa ...
will provide an even greater step forward, providing rest-frame visible light images of even more distant galaxies which can be directly compared with images of nearby galaxies at visible light wavelengths.


Synergies

Aside from inherent mission capabilities (particularly sensitivities, which cannot be replicated by ground observatories), the Great Observatories program allows missions to interact for greater science return. Different objects shine in different wavelengths, but training two or more observatories on an object allows a deeper understanding. High-energy studies (in X-rays and gamma rays) have had only moderate imaging resolutions so far. Studying X-ray and gamma-ray objects with Hubble, as well as Chandra and Compton, gives accurate size and positional data. In particular, Hubble's resolution can often discern whether the target is a standalone object, or part of a parent galaxy, and if a bright object is in the nucleus, arms, or halo of a
spiral galaxy Spiral galaxies form a class of galaxy originally described by Edwin Hubble in his 1936 work ''The Realm of the Nebulae''Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer, which can measure details in angular seconds or fractions of a second, due to different designs. Rossi's last full year of operation was 2011. The ability of Spitzer to see through dust and thick gases is good for galactic nuclei observations. Massive objects at the hearts of galaxies shine in X-rays, gamma rays, and radio waves, but infrared studies into these clouded regions can reveal the number and positions of objects. Hubble, meanwhile, has neither the field of view nor the available time to study all interesting objects. Worthwhile targets are often found with ground telescopes, which are cheaper, or with smaller space observatories, which are sometimes expressly designed to cover large areas of the sky. Also, the other three Great Observatories have found interesting new objects, which merit diversion of Hubble. One example of observatory synergy is Solar System and
asteroid An asteroid is a minor planet of the inner Solar System. Sizes and shapes of asteroids vary significantly, ranging from 1-meter rocks to a dwarf planet almost 1000 km in diameter; they are rocky, metallic or icy bodies with no atmosphere. ...
studies. Small bodies, such as small moons and asteroids, are too small and/or distant to be directly resolved even by Hubble; their image appears as a
diffraction Diffraction is defined as the interference or bending of waves around the corners of an obstacle or through an aperture into the region of geometrical shadow of the obstacle/aperture. The diffracting object or aperture effectively becomes a s ...
pattern determined by brightness, not size. However, the minimum size can be deduced by Hubble through knowledge of the body's albedo. The maximum size can be determined by Spitzer through knowledge of the body's temperature, which is largely known from its orbit. Thus, the body's true size is bracketed. Further
spectroscopy Spectroscopy is the field of study that measures and interprets the electromagnetic spectra that result from the interaction between electromagnetic radiation and matter as a function of the wavelength or frequency of the radiation. Matter wa ...
by Spitzer can determine the chemical composition of the object's surface, which limits its possible albedos, and therefore sharpens the low size estimate. At the opposite end of the cosmic distance ladder, observations made with Hubble, Spitzer and Chandra have been combined in the Great Observatories Origins Deep Survey to yield a multi-wavelength picture of galaxy formation and evolution in the early Universe. * Late 1991: Operation of both Hubble and Compton * Late 1999: Operation of Hubble, Compton, and Chandra * Mid 2000: Operation of Hubble and Chandra * Late 2003: Operation of Hubble, Chandra, and Spitzer * Early 2020: Operation of Hubble and Chandra


Synergistic discoveries

When great observatories worked together to make special discoveries or observations: Reported in March 2016, Spitzer and Hubble were used to discover the most distant-known galaxy, GN-z11. This object was seen as it appeared 13.4 billion years ago. } ( List of the most distant astronomical objects)


Successors to GO instruments

*
James Webb Space Telescope The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) is a space telescope which conducts infrared astronomy. As the largest optical telescope in space, its high resolution and sensitivity allow it to view objects too old, distant, or faint for the Hubble Spa ...
(JWST) — previously known as the NGST (Next Generation Space Telescope) launched in December 2021, and will work simultaneously with Hubble until its mission ends. Its segmented, deployable mirror will be over twice as wide, increasing angular resolution noticeably, and sensitivity dramatically. Unlike Hubble, JWST will observe in the infrared, in order to penetrate dust at cosmological distances. This means it will continue some Spitzer capabilities, while some Hubble capabilities will be lost in the visible and especially the ultraviolet wavelengths. JWST will exceed Spitzer's performance in near-infrared, and the European Space Agency's
Herschel Space Observatory The Herschel Space Observatory was a space observatory built and operated by the European Space Agency (ESA). It was active from 2009 to 2013, and was the largest infrared telescope ever launched until the launch of the James Webb Space Telesc ...
, operational from 2009 to 2013, has exceeded Spitzer in the far-infrared. The SOFIA (
Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy The Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA) was an 80/20 joint project of NASA and the German Aerospace Center (DLR) to construct and maintain an airborne observatory. NASA awarded the contract for the development of the aircraf ...
) airborne platform observes in near- and mid-infrared. SOFIA has a larger aperture than Spitzer, but lower relative sensitivity. * The Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope, formerly GLAST, the Gamma Ray Large Area Space Telescope, is a follow-on to Compton launched on 11 June 2008. GLAST is more narrowly defined, and much smaller; it will carry only one main instrument and a secondary experiment. Other missions, such as
HETE-2 High Energy Transient Explorer 2 (HETE-2; also known as Explorer 79) was a NASA astronomical satellite with international participation (mainly Japan and France). The satellite bus for the first HETE-1 was designed and built by AeroAstro, Inc. ...
, launched in 2000, and Swift, launched in 2004, will complement GLAST. The
Reuven Ramaty High Energy Solar Spectroscopic Imager Reuven Ramaty High Energy Solar Spectroscopic Imager (RHESSI, originally High Energy Solar Spectroscopic Imager or HESSI or Explorer 81) was a NASA solar flare observatory. It was the sixth mission in the Small Explorer program (SMEX), selected ...
(RHESSI), launched in 2002, observes in some Compton and Chandra wavelengths, but is pointed at the Sun at all times. Occasionally it observes high-energy objects which happen to be in the view around the Sun. * Another large, high-energy observatory is INTEGRAL, Europe's INTErnational Gamma Ray Astrophysics Laboratory, launched in 2002. It observes in similar frequencies to Compton. INTEGRAL uses a fundamentally different telescope technology, coded-aperture masks. Thus, its capabilities are complementary to Compton and Fermi.


Later programs

* The Beyond Einstein program will seek to develop new areas of science. Constellation-X and the Laser Interferometer Space Antenna (LISA) have been referred to by NASA as the
Einstein Great Observatories The Beyond Einstein program is a NASA project designed to explore the limits of General theory of Relativity of Albert Einstein. The project includes two space observatories, and several observational cosmology probes. The program culminates with ...
, to differentiate them from the current generation. However, they are not a part of the Great Observatories program. * The
International Solar-Terrestrial Physics Science Initiative The International Solar-Terrestrial Physics Science Initiative (or ISTP for short) is an international research collaboration between NASA, the ESA, and ISAS. Its goal is to study physical phenomena related to the Sun, solar wind and its effects o ...
(ISTP), in the spirit of the Great Observatories program, is a group of instruments to study the Sun and related electromagnetic phenomena near Earth.


Next Great Observatory

In 2016, NASA began considering four different
Flagship A flagship is a vessel used by the commanding officer of a group of naval ships, characteristically a flag officer entitled by custom to fly a distinguishing flag. Used more loosely, it is the lead ship in a fleet of vessels, typically the fi ...
space telescopes, they are the Habitable Exoplanet Imaging Mission (HabEx), Large UV Optical Infrared Surveyor (LUVOIR), Origins Space Telescope (OST), and Lynx X-ray Observatory. In 2019, the four teams will turn their final reports over to the
National Academy of Sciences The National Academy of Sciences (NAS) is a United States nonprofit, non-governmental organization. NAS is part of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, along with the National Academy of Engineering (NAE) and the Nati ...
, whose independent Decadal Survey committee advises NASA on which mission should take top priority. Selection would take place in 2021, and launch approximately in 2035.


Gallery

Image:Hubble 01.jpg, Hubble Space Telescope Image:Cartoon CGRO.jpg, Compton Gamma Ray Observatory illustration File:CGRO s37-96-010.jpg, Compton Gamma Ray Observatory, 1991 File:STS-93 Payload Bay Door Closure - GPN-2000-000854.jpg, Chandra in the Space Shuttle bay on Earth File:Faring0814 03.jpg, Spitzer on Earth being readied for launch


See also

* Beyond Einstein program *
Herschel Space Telescope The Herschel Space Observatory was a space observatory built and operated by the European Space Agency (ESA). It was active from 2009 to 2013, and was the largest infrared telescope ever launched until the launch of the James Webb Space Teles ...
(Far infrared space observatory, 2009–2013) * List of space telescopes


Notes and references


External links

*
STS-125: Final Shuttle Mission to Hubble Space Telescope

Great Observatories Interactive using WorldWide Telescope
{{Hubble Space Telescope Space telescopes NASA programs Spitzer Space Telescope Hubble Space Telescope Chandra X-ray Observatory Gamma-ray telescopes