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In most contexts, the concept of good denotes the conduct that should be preferred when posed with a choice between possible actions. Good is generally considered to be the opposite of
evil Evil, in a general sense, is defined as the opposite or absence of good. It can be an extremely broad concept, although in everyday usage it is often more narrowly used to talk about profound wickedness and against common good. It is general ...
and is of interest in the study of ethics, morality, philosophy, and religion. The specific meaning and etymology of the term and its associated translations among ancient and contemporary languages show substantial variation in its inflection and meaning, depending on circumstances of place and history, or of philosophical or religious context.


History of Western ideas

Every language has a word expressing ''good'' in the sense of "having the right or desirable quality" ( ἀρετή) and ''bad'' in the sense "undesirable". A sense of moral judgment and a distinction "right and wrong, good and bad" are cultural universals.


Plato and Aristotle

Although the history of the origin of the use of the concept and meaning of "good" are diverse, the notable discussions of Plato and Aristotle on this subject have been of significant historical effect. The first references that are seen in Plato's ''The Republic'' to the
Form of the Good "Form of the Good", or more literally "the idea of the good" () is a concept in the philosophy of Plato. The definition of the Good is a perfect, eternal, and changeless Form, existing outside space and time. It is a Platonic ideal. Uses in '' ...
are within the conversation between Glaucon and
Socrates Socrates (; ; –399 BC) was a Greek philosopher from Athens who is credited as the founder of Western philosophy and among the first moral philosophers of the ethical tradition of thought. An enigmatic figure, Socrates authored no te ...
(454c–d). When trying to answer such difficult questions pertaining to the definition of
justice Justice, in its broadest sense, is the principle that people receive that which they deserve, with the interpretation of what then constitutes "deserving" being impacted upon by numerous fields, with many differing viewpoints and perspective ...
, Plato identifies that we should not "introduce every form of difference and sameness in nature" instead we must focus on "the one form of sameness and difference that was relevant to the particular ways of life themselves”, which is the form of the Good. This form is the basis for understanding all other forms, it is what allows us to understand everything else. Through the conversation between Socrates and Glaucon (508a–c) Plato analogizes the form of the Good with the sun as it is what allows us to see things. Here, Plato describes how the sun allows for sight. But he makes a very important distinction, "sun is not sight", but it is "the cause of sight itself". As the sun is in the visible realm, the form of Good is in the intelligible realm. It is "what gives truth to the things known and the power to know to the knower". It is not only the "cause of knowledge and truth, it is also an object of knowledge". Plato identifies how the form of the Good allows for the cognizance to understand such difficult concepts as justice. He identifies knowledge and truth as important, but through Socrates (508d–e) says, "good is yet more prized". He then proceeds to explain that "although the good is not being" it is "superior to it in rank and power", it is what "provides for knowledge and truth" (508e). In contrast to Plato,
Aristotle Aristotle (; grc-gre, Ἀριστοτέλης ''Aristotélēs'', ; 384–322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Peripatetic school of ph ...
discusses the Forms of Good in critical terms several times in both of his major surviving ethical works, the '' Eudemian'' and '' Nicomachean Ethics''. Aristotle argues that Plato's Form of the Good does not apply to the physical world, for Plato does not assign "goodness" to anything in the existing world. Because Plato's Form of the Good does not explain events in the physical world, humans have no reason to believe that the Form of the Good exists and the Form of the Good thereby, is irrelevant to human ethics. Plato and Aristotle were not the first contributors in ancient Greece to the study of the "good" and discussion preceding them can be found among the pre-Socratic philosophers. In Western civilisation, the basic meanings of κακός and ἀγαθός are "bad, cowardly" and "good, brave, capable", and their absolute sense emerges only around 400 BC, with
Pre-Socratic philosophy Pre-Socratic philosophy, also known as early Greek philosophy, is ancient Greek philosophy before Socrates. Pre-Socratic philosophers were mostly interested in cosmology, the beginning and the substance of the universe, but the inquiries of the ...
, in particular
Democritus Democritus (; el, Δημόκριτος, ''Dēmókritos'', meaning "chosen of the people"; – ) was an Ancient Greek pre-Socratic philosopher from Abdera, primarily remembered today for his formulation of an atomic theory of the universe. No ...
. Morality in this absolute sense solidifies in the dialogues of
Plato Plato ( ; grc-gre, Πλάτων ; 428/427 or 424/423 – 348/347 BC) was a Greek philosopher born in Athens during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. He founded the Platonist school of thought and the Academy, the first institution ...
, together with the emergence of monotheistic thought (notably in ''
Euthyphro ''Euthyphro'' (; grc, Εὐθύφρων, translit=Euthyphrōn; c. 399–395 BC), by Plato, is a Socratic dialogue whose events occur in the weeks before the trial of Socrates (399 BC), between Socrates and Euthyphro. The dialogue covers sub ...
'', which ponders the concept of piety ( τὸ ὅσιον) as a moral absolute). The idea is further developed in
Late Antiquity Late antiquity is the time of transition from classical antiquity to the Middle Ages, generally spanning the 3rd–7th century in Europe and adjacent areas bordering the Mediterranean Basin. The popularization of this periodization in English ha ...
by Neoplatonists, Gnostics, and Church Fathers.


Ancient western religions

Aside from ancient Greek studies of the "good", more than twenty-five hundred years ago in the eastern part of ancient
Persia Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and also called Persia, is a country located in Western Asia. It is bordered by Iraq and Turkey to the west, by Azerbaijan and Armenia to the northwest, by the Caspian Sea and Turkmeni ...
a religious philosopher called
Zoroaster Zoroaster,; fa, زرتشت, Zartosht, label= Modern Persian; ku, زەردەشت, Zerdeşt also known as Zarathustra,, . Also known as Zarathushtra Spitama, or Ashu Zarathushtra is regarded as the spiritual founder of Zoroastrianism. He is ...
simplified the
pantheon Pantheon may refer to: * Pantheon (religion), a set of gods belonging to a particular religion or tradition, and a temple or sacred building Arts and entertainment Comics *Pantheon (Marvel Comics), a fictional organization * ''Pantheon'' (Lone S ...
of early Iranian deities into two opposing forces: Ahura Mazda ( Illuminating
Wisdom Wisdom, sapience, or sagacity is the ability to contemplate and act using knowledge, experience, understanding, common sense and insight. Wisdom is associated with attributes such as unbiased judgment, compassion, experiential self-knowle ...
) and
Angra Mainyu Angra Mainyu (; Avestan: 𐬀𐬢𐬭𐬀⸱𐬨𐬀𐬌𐬥𐬌𐬌𐬎 ''Aŋra Mainiiu'') is the Avestan-language name of Zoroastrianism's hypostasis of the "destructive/evil spirit" and the main adversary in Zoroastrianism either of th ...
( Destructive Spirit) that were in conflict. For the western world, this idea developed into a religion that spawned many
sect A sect is a subgroup of a religious, political, or philosophical belief system, usually an offshoot of a larger group. Although the term was originally a classification for religious separated groups, it can now refer to any organization that ...
s, some of which embraced an extreme dualistic belief that the material world should be shunned and the spiritual world should be embraced. Gnostic ideas influenced many
ancient Ancient history is a time period from the beginning of writing and recorded human history to as far as late antiquity. The span of recorded history is roughly 5,000 years, beginning with the Sumerian cuneiform script. Ancient history cov ...
religions, which teach that ''
gnosis Gnosis is the common Greek noun for knowledge ( γνῶσις, ''gnōsis'', f.). The term was used among various Hellenistic religions and philosophies in the Greco-Roman world. It is best known for its implication within Gnosticism, where it ...
'' (variously interpreted as enlightenment,
salvation Salvation (from Latin: ''salvatio'', from ''salva'', 'safe, saved') is the state of being saved or protected from harm or a dire situation. In religion and theology, ''salvation'' generally refers to the deliverance of the soul from sin and its ...
,
emancipation Emancipation generally means to free a person from a previous restraint or legal disability. More broadly, it is also used for efforts to procure economic and social rights, political rights or equality, often for a specifically disenfranch ...
, or "oneness with God") may be reached by practising philanthropy to the point of personal poverty,
sexual abstinence Sexual abstinence or sexual restraint is the practice of refraining from some or all aspects of sexual activity for medical, psychological, legal, social, financial, philosophical, moral, or religious reasons. Sexual abstinence is distinct from ...
(as far as possible for '' hearers'' and totally for '' initiates''), and diligently searching for
wisdom Wisdom, sapience, or sagacity is the ability to contemplate and act using knowledge, experience, understanding, common sense and insight. Wisdom is associated with attributes such as unbiased judgment, compassion, experiential self-knowle ...
by helping others. This development from the relative or habitual to the absolute is evident in the terms ''
ethics Ethics or moral philosophy is a branch of philosophy that "involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior".''Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' The field of ethics, along with aesthetics, concer ...
'' and ''
morality Morality () is the differentiation of intentions, decisions and actions between those that are distinguished as proper (right) and those that are improper (wrong). Morality can be a body of standards or principles derived from a code of co ...
'' as well, both being derived from terms for "regional custom", Greek ἦθος and Latin ''mores'', respectively (see also '' siðr'').


Medieval period in western cultures

Medieval
Christian philosophy Christian philosophy includes all philosophy carried out by Christians, or in relation to the religion of Christianity. Christian philosophy emerged with the aim of reconciling science and faith, starting from natural rational explanations w ...
was founded on the work of Bishop Augustine of Hippo and theologian
Thomas Aquinas Thomas Aquinas, OP (; it, Tommaso d'Aquino, lit=Thomas of Aquino; 1225 – 7 March 1274) was an Italian Dominican friar and priest who was an influential philosopher, theologian and jurist in the tradition of scholasticism; he is known wit ...
, who understood evil in terms of Biblical infallibility and
Biblical inerrancy Biblical inerrancy is the belief that the Bible "is without error or fault in all its teaching"; or, at least, that "Scripture in the original manuscripts does not affirm anything that is contrary to fact". Some equate inerrancy with biblical ...
, as well as the influences of Plato and Aristotle, in their appreciation of the concept of the Summum bonum. Silent contemplation was the route to appreciation of the Idea of the Good. Many medieval Christian
theologian Theology is the systematic study of the nature of the divine and, more broadly, of religious belief. It is taught as an academic discipline, typically in universities and seminaries. It occupies itself with the unique content of analyzing the ...
s both broadened and narrowed the basic concept of ''Good and Evil'' until it came to have several, sometimes complex definitions such as: * a personal preference or subjective judgment regarding any issue that might earn
praise Praise as a form of social interaction expresses recognition, reassurance or admiration. Praise is expressed verbally as well as by body language (facial expression and gestures). Verbal praise consists of a positive evaluations of another's att ...
or punishment from the Theocracy, religious authorities * religious obligation arising from Divine law leading to saint, sainthood or damnation * a generally accepted Norm (social), cultural standard of behaviour that might enhance group Human evolution (origins of society and culture), survival or wealth * natural law or behaviour that induces strong emotional reaction * State (polity), statute law imposing a legal duty


Modern concepts


Kant

A significant enlightenment context for studying the "good" has been its significance in the study of "Transcendentals, the good, the true, and the beautiful" as found in Immanuel Kant and other Enlightenment philosophers and religious thinkers. These discussions were undertaken by Kant, particularly in the context of his ''Critique of Practical Reason''.


Rawls

John Rawls's book ''A Theory of Justice'' prioritized social arrangements and goods, based on their contribution to
justice Justice, in its broadest sense, is the principle that people receive that which they deserve, with the interpretation of what then constitutes "deserving" being impacted upon by numerous fields, with many differing viewpoints and perspective ...
. Rawls defined justice as ''fairness'', especially in distributing social goods, defined fairness in terms of procedures, and attempted to prove that just institutions and lives are good, if every rational individual's goods are considered fairly. Rawls's crucial invention was the original position, a procedure in which one tries to make objective moral decisions by refusing to let personal facts about oneself enter one's moral calculations.


Opposition to evil

In religion,
ethics Ethics or moral philosophy is a branch of philosophy that "involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior".''Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' The field of ethics, along with aesthetics, concer ...
, and philosophy, "good and evil" is a very common dichotomy. In cultures with Manichaeism, Manichaean and Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic religious influence, evil is usually perceived as the antagonistic dualistic cosmology, opposite of good. Good is that which should prevail and evil should be defeated.Paul O. Ingram, Frederick John Streng. ''Buddhist-Christian Dialogue: Mutual Renewal and Transformation''. University of Hawaii Press, 1986. P. 148-149. As a religious concept, basic ideas of a dichotomy between good and evil has developed in western cultures so that today: * ''Good (religion), Good'' is a broad concept, but it typically deals with an association with life, Charity (virtue), charity, continuity, happiness, love, and
justice Justice, in its broadest sense, is the principle that people receive that which they deserve, with the interpretation of what then constitutes "deserving" being impacted upon by numerous fields, with many differing viewpoints and perspective ...
* ''Evil'' typically is associated with conscious and deliberate wrongdoing, discrimination designed to harm others, humiliation of people designed to diminish their psychological needs and dignity, destructiveness, and acts of unnecessary and/or indiscriminate violence * the dilemma of the human condition and their capacity to perform both good and evil activities


In Buddhism

In cultures with Buddhism, Buddhist spiritual influence, this antagonistic duality itself must be overcome through achieving ''Śūnyatā'', or emptiness. This is the recognition of good and evil not being unrelated, but two parts of a greater whole; unity, oneness, a Monism.


In the field of biology

Morality is regarded by some biologists (notably E. O. Wilson, Edward O. Wilson, Jeremy Griffith, David Sloan Wilson, and Frans de Waal) as an important question to be addressed by the field of biology.


See also

* Adiaphora * Axiology * Beneficence (ethics), Beneficence (ethics) * Beyond Good and Evil (Nietzsche) * Common good * Descriptive ethics * Devil * Ethics * Evil *
Form of the Good "Form of the Good", or more literally "the idea of the good" () is a concept in the philosophy of Plato. The definition of the Good is a perfect, eternal, and changeless Form, existing outside space and time. It is a Platonic ideal. Uses in '' ...
(Plato) * Graded absolutism * Inductive reasoning * Meta-ethics * Moral absolutism * Moral dilemma * Moral realism * Moral universalism * Morality * Non-physical entity * Objectivist ethics, Objectivist theory of good and evil * On the Genealogy of Morality (Nietzsche) * Problem of evil * Righteousness * Sin * Supreme good * Tree of the knowledge of good and evil * Utopia * Value theory * Welfarism


References


Further reading

* Aristotle. "Nicomachean Ethics". 1998. USA: Oxford University Press. (1177a15) * Bentham, Jeremy. ''The Principles of Morals and Legislation''. 1988. Prometheus Books. * Boyce, Mary. ''Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices'', London: Routledge/Kegan Paul 1979; Corrected repr. 1984; repr. with new foreword 2001. * Dewey, John. ''Theory of Valuation''. 1948. University of Chicago Press. * Griffin, James. Well-Being: Its Meaning, Measurement and Moral Importance. 1986. Oxford: Oxford University Press. * Hume, David. ''A Treatise of Human Nature''. 2000. Oxford: Oxford University Press. * Hurka, Thomas. ''Perfectionism''. 1993. Oxford: Oxford University Press. * Kant, Immanuel. ''Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals''. 1996. Cambridge University Press. Third section, [446]-[447]. * Kierkegaard, Søren. ''Either/Or''. 1992. Penguin Classics. * Rawls, John. ''A Theory of Justice''. 1999. Belknap Press. * Ross, W. D. ''The Right and the Good''. 1930. Oxford University Press.


External links

* * {{Authority control Good and evil, Concepts in ethics Stereotypes Value (ethics)