The Goguryeo–Wei War was a series of invasions of

Goguryeo Goguryeo (37 BC–668 AD) ( ) also called Goryeo (), was a Korean kingdom located in the northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula and the southern and central parts of Northeast China. At its peak of power, Goguryeo controlled mos ...

from 244 to 245 launched by

Cao Wei Wei ( Hanzi: 魏; pinyin: ''Wèi'' < Middle Chinese: *''ŋjwei^C'' <

Hwando Hwando () is a mountain fortress of the ancient Korean kingdom of Goguryeo, built to protect Goguryeo's second capital, Gungnae. It is located in present-day Ji'an city of the province of Jilin, China. The fortress is located 2.5 km west of Ji'an ...

, sent its king fleeing, and broke the tributary relationships between Goguryeo and the other tribes of the Korean Peninsula that formed much of Goguryeo's economy.Gardiner 1969 : 34. Although the king evaded capture and would go on to settle in a new capital, Goguryeo was greatly diminished for a time, and would spend the next half century rebuilding its ruling structure and regaining control over its people, unmentioned by the Chinese historical texts.Byington 2007 : 93. By the time Goguryeo reappeared in Chinese annals, the state had evolved into a much more powerful political entity—thus the Wei invasion was identified by historians as a watershed moment in Goguryeo history that divided the different stages of Goguryeo's growth. In addition, the second campaign of the war included the furthest expedition into

Manchuria Manchuria is an exonym (derived from the endo demonym " Manchu") for a historical and geographic region in Northeast Asia encompassing the entirety of present-day Northeast China (Inner Manchuria) and parts of the Russian Far East (Outer M ...

by a Chinese army up to that time and was therefore instrumental in providing the earliest descriptions of the peoples who lived there.

Background

The polity of Goguryeo developed among the peoples of

and the

Korean Peninsula Korea ( ko, 한국, or , ) is a peninsular region in East Asia. Since 1945, it has been divided at or near the 38th parallel, with North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea) comprising its northern half and South Korea (Republic o ...

during the 1st and 2nd century BC as the

Western Han dynasty The Han dynasty (, ; ) was an imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD), established by Liu Bang (Emperor Gao) and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–207 BC) and a war ...

extended its control to Northeast Asia, creating the

Four Commanderies of Han The Four Commanderies of Han (; ) were Chinese commanderies located in the north of the Korean Peninsula and part of the Liaodong Peninsula from around the end of the second century BC through the early 4th AD, for the longest lasting. The comma ...

. As it grew and centralized, Goguryeo increasingly contacted and conflicted with the Han dynasty. Goguryeo consolidated its power by conquering the territories on the north of the peninsula which were under Han rule. When the power of the Han dynasty declined to internal turmoil in the 2nd century AD, the warlord

Gongsun Du Gongsun Du () (150? – 2049th year of the ''Jian'an'' era, per vol. 08 of ''Sanguozhi''), courtesy name Shengji, was a Chinese military general, politician, and warlord who lived during the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. He was not able ...

came to control the commanderies of Liaodong (遼東) and Xuantu, directly adjacent to Goguryeo. Gongsun Du's faction often quarrelled with Goguryeo despite initial cooperation, and the conflict culminated in the Goguryeo succession feud of 204, which Gongsun Du's successor

Gongsun Kang Gongsun Kang () ( 200s to 210s) was a Chinese military general, politician, and warlord who lived during the late Eastern Han dynasty. He became a vassal of the state of Cao Wei in the early Three Kingdoms periodMore specifically, as mentioned b ...

exploited. Though the candidate supported by Gongsun Kang was eventually defeated, the victor Sansang of Goguryeo was compelled to move his capital southeast to

(present-day

Ji'an Ji'an () is a prefecture-level city situated in the central region of Jiangxi province of the People's Republic of China while bordering Hunan province to the west. It has an area of and as of the 2020 census, had a population of 4,469,176, of ...

Jilin Jilin (; alternately romanized as Kirin or Chilin) is one of the three provinces of Northeast China. Its capital and largest city is Changchun. Jilin borders North Korea ( Rasŏn, North Hamgyong, Ryanggang and Chagang) and Russia (Prim ...

) on the

Yalu River The Yalu River, known by Koreans as the Amrok River or Amnok River, is a river on the border between North Korea and China. Together with the Tumen River to its east, and a small portion of Paektu Mountain, the Yalu forms the border between ...

, which offered better protection. Gongsun Kang moved in and restored order to the

Lelang Commandery The Lelang Commandery was a commandery of the Han dynasty established after it had conquered Wiman Joseon in 108 BC and lasted until Goguryeo conquered it in 313. The Lelang Commandery extended the rule of the Four Commanderies of Han as far so ...

and established the new

Daifang Commandery The Daifang Commandery was an administrative division established by the Chinese Han dynasty on the Korean Peninsula between 204 and 314. History Gongsun Kang, a warlord in Liaodong, separated the southern half from the Lelang commandery and ...

by splitting the southern part of Lelang. Compared to the agriculturally rich former capital Jolbon, Hwando was situated in a mountainous region with little arable land. To sustain the economy, Hwando had to constantly extract resources from the peoples in the countryside, which included the tribal communities of

Okjeo Okjeo () was an ancient Korean tribal state which arose in the northern Korean peninsula from perhaps the 2nd century BCE to the 5th century CE. Dong-okjeo (Eastern Okjeo) occupied roughly the area of the Hamgyŏng provinces of North Korea, and ...

and Ye. The Okjeo were said to have worked as virtual slaves to the Goguryeo king, hauling provisions (such as cloth, fish, salt and other sea products) from the peninsula's northeast to the Yalu basin, reflecting the arrangement that Goguryeo had to adopt after the entry of Gongsun Kang. By the 230s, Goguryeo had regathered their strength from these tributary relations and regained their presence in the Jolbon region. In 234, the Han dynasty's successor state

Cao Wei Wei ( Hanzi: 魏; pinyin: ''Wèi'' < Middle Chinese: *''ŋjwei^C'' <

Gongsun Yuan Gongsun Yuan () (died September 238Cao Rui's biography in ''Sanguozhi'' indicated that Sima Yi laid siege to Xiangping on the ''bingyin'' day of the 8th month of the 2nd year of the ''Jing'chu'' era. However, there is no ''bingyin'' day in that ...

, the last of the Gongsun warlords (See Sima Yi's Liaodong campaign). Wei took over all of Gongsun Yuan's territories, including Lelang and Daifang — now Wei's influence was extended into the Korean Peninsula, adjacent to Goguryeo. However, Han population plummeted in Liaodong as Wei engaged in a large-scale purge of all who served Gongsun Yuan and relocated the coastal populace to Shandong in response to a sea raid from the enemy state Eastern Wu. The alliance between Goguryeo and Wei broke down in 242, when King Dongcheon of Goguryeo sent men to plunder the Liaodong district of Xi'anping (西安平; near present-day Dandong, Liaoning) at the mouth of the Yalu River.Tennant 1996 : 22. Original quote: "Wei. In 242, under King Tongch'ŏn, they attacked a Chinese fortress near the mouth of the Yalu in an attempt to cut the land route across Liao, in return for which the Wei invaded them in 244 and sacked Hwando." Xi'anping was an important area that had been under Goguryeo control in the early 230s but was overrun by Wei forces during the Liaodong campaign in 238. It was crucial agricultural landBarnes 2001 : 25. that was home to the "Small River Maek" (小水貊) people, a branch of the Goguryeo people known for their excellent bows. In addition, Xi'anping provided Goguryeo with sea access, from where Goguryeo communicated with Eastern Wu in the past. Finally, a Goguryeo presence there would cut off the land routes between the Central Plain and the Cao Wei commanderies on the Korean Peninsula. The Cao Wei court reacted most strongly to this apparent threat to their control of Lelang and Daifang.Byington 2007 : 93.

First campaign

The Battle of Liangkou

In response to Goguryeo's aggression, the Inspector of You Province (幽州刺史),

Guanqiu Jian Guanqiu Jian (died 16 March 255), courtesy name Zhonggong, was a Chinese military general and politician of the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period of China. Life Guanqiu Jian was from Wenxi County (), Hedong Commandery, which i ...

, set out from Xuantu Commandery into Goguryeo with seven legions — amounting to 10,000 infantry and cavalry in total — in 244. From the seat of government in Xuantu (near present-day Shenyang, Liaoning), Guanqiu Jian's army went up the valley of the Suzi River (蘇子河), a tributary of the Hunhe River, to present-day Xinbin County, and from there crossed the watershed to the east and entered the Hunjiang River valley. King Dongcheon marched with 20,000 infantry and cavalry out from his capital Hwando to meet the advancing army. The king's army travelled through several river valleys and met Guanqiu Jian's army at the junction of the Fu'er River (富爾江) and the Hunjiang River, a place known as Liangkou (梁口; present-day Jiangkou village 江口村 in

Tonghua Tonghua () is a prefecture-level city in the south of Jilin province, People's Republic of China. It borders North Korea's Chagang Province to the south and southeast, Baishan to the east, Jilin City to the north, Liaoyuan to the northwest, and ...

). Liangkou was to become the site of the first battles between Guanqiu Jian and King Dongcheon. Sources differ on how the battles played out. The 12th century Korean source ''

Samguk Sagi ''Samguk Sagi'' (, ''History of the Three Kingdoms'') is a historical record of the Three Kingdoms of Korea: Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla. The ''Samguk Sagi'' is written in Classical Chinese, the written language of the literati of ancient Korea, ...

'' states that Guanqiu Jian's army invaded in the eighth

lunar month In lunar calendars, a lunar month is the time between two successive syzygies of the same type: new moons or full moons. The precise definition varies, especially for the beginning of the month. Variations In Shona, Middle Eastern, and Eur ...

of the year, but was twice defeated before winning the crucial battle that sent the king back to the capital. The first battle, according to ''Samguk Sagi'', pitted King Dongcheon's 20,000 foot and horse soldiers against Guanqiu Jian's 10,000-man-strong army on the Hunjiang River, which Goguryeo won and beheaded 3,000 Wei soldiers. The second engagement was described to have happened in a "Dale of Liangmo" (梁貊之谷), where Goguryeo again bested and captured and killed 3,000 more soldiers. The two victories seemed to have got into the king's head as he remarked to his generals: "The Wei army, so enormous, cannot match a small force of ours, Guanqiu Jian is a great general of Wei, and today his life is in my hands!" He then led 5,000 ironclad horsemen to lead the charge against Guanqiu Jian, who put his troops in square formation and fought desperately. In the end, 18,000 Goguryeo men were killed in this last battle, and the defeated king fled to the Plain of Yalu (鴨綠原) with a little more than a thousand horsemen. In contrast, the near-contemporary "Biography of Guanqiu Jian" in volume 28 of ''

Records of Three Kingdoms The ''Records or History of the Three Kingdoms'', also known by its Chinese name as the Sanguo Zhi, is a Chinese historical text which covers the history of the late Eastern Han dynasty (c. 184–220 AD) and the Three Kingdoms period (220� ...

'', containing the Chinese account of this battle, states that King Dongcheon was repeatedly defeated in the tremendous fight at Liangkou and was forced to flee. Japanese researcher Hiroshi Ikeuchi, writing in 1929 during Japan's period of colonial rule over Korea, asserts that the Korean account was transformed from Guanqiu Jian's biography, reversing the results of the battles before Liangkou. The same researcher also suggests that the aforementioned "Dale of Liangmo" place was fabricated by the biased historian sympathetic to Goguryeo. Nonetheless, both Chinese and Korean sources agree on the fact that King Dongcheon ultimately lost the battle of Liangkou and headed back to Hwando.

The capture of Hwando

The Wei army gave chase to the routed Goguryeo army after the battle of Liangkou. According to the Chinese source ''

History of Northern Dynasties The ''History of the Northern Dynasties'' () is one of the official Chinese historical works in the ''Twenty-Four Histories'' canon. The text contains 100 volumes and covers the period from 386 to 618, the histories of Northern Wei, Western We ...

'', Guanqiu Jian reached Chengxian (赬峴), determined to be the present-day mountain pass Xiaobancha Ridge (小板岔嶺), also called Banshi Ridge (板石嶺). Since the mountainous region rendered the cavalry ineffective, the Wei army fastened the horses and chariots there and climbed up to mountain city of Hwando. Guanqiu Jian first struck the stronghold guarding the main city and then descended upon the capital, where the Wei army wrought much destruction, slaughtering and capturing over thousands of people. Guanqiu Jian specifically spared the tomb and family of Deukrae (得來), a Goguryeo minister who frequently remonstrated against aggression toward Wei and starved himself to death in protest when his advice went unheeded. The king and his family fled the capital. With the Goguryeo capital subjugated, Guanqiu Jian returned to You Province with his army in around June 245. On the way back, he had a tablet erected in Chengxian commemorating his victory, explaining the course of events, and listing the generals who participated in the campaign. A fragment of the monument was discovered in 1905, near the end of the

Qing dynasty The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-spea ...

, bearing the following mutilated inscription: Guanqiu Jian commemoration stele

: :a. Corresponds to year 242. :b. Corresponds to year 244. :c. Corresponds to around June 245. :d. Identified as Kouloudun 寇婁敦, Wuhuan Chanyu of Youbeiping

Second campaign

Wang Qi's pursuit of King Dongcheon

King Dongcheon had returned to the abandoned capital of Hwando after the Wei army retreated homeward, but in the same year Guanqiu Jian sent the Grand Administrator of Xuantu, Wang Qi (王頎), in pursuit of the king. Since the capital had been so ravaged and rendered defenceless by the previous campaign, the king had to flee again with his nobles of several ranks to South Okjeo (also known as Dongokjeo, ''"East Okjeo"''). According to the ''Samguk Sagi'', the king's escape was aided by Milu (密友), a man of the Eastern District (東部), when the king's troops had all but scattered to the last handful at Jungnyeong Pass. Milu said to the king, "I will go back and hold the enemy at bay while you make good your escape," and held the narrow pass with three or four soldiers while the king made his way to regroup with a band of friendly troops. The king offered a reward to anyone who could bring Milu back to safety, and a Yu Okgu (劉屋句) found Milu lying on the ground with grievous injuries. The king was so delighted to recover his faithful retainer that he personally nursed Milu back to life. The chase from Hwando to South Okjeo took the two parties across the Yalu (Amnok) River into the northern parts of the Korean Peninsula. The precise route of the chase may have passed by present-day Kanggye, from where there are two possibilities: one heading east through the Rangrim Mountains then south to present-day Changjin; the other following the

Changja River The Changja River is a river of North Korea. The Changja River flows through the north of the county and flows through the city of Kanggye Kanggye () is the provincial capital of Chagang, North Korea and has a population of 251,971. Because of ...

south then turning east to reach Changjin. From Changjin, the pursuer and the pursued followed the Changjin River (長津江) south until they reached the vast and fertile Hamhung plains, where the river flowed into the

East Korea Bay __NOTOC__ The East Korea Bay ( ko, 동조선만, 동한만), also formerly known in English as Broughton Bay, is a bight in the east coast of North Korea and an extension of the Sea of Japan, located between the provinces of South Hamgyong and ...

.Ikeuchi 1929 : 87. It was here in Hamhung that the South Okjeo people thrived, and thus King Dongcheon came here for refuge. When Wang Qi's army arrived, however, the Okjeo tribes were all defeated, with 3,000 tribesmen killed or captured. The king fled again, and the Wei army turned toward North Okjeo. The ''Samguk Sagi'' relates to an event that purported to have happened in South Okjeo: Yuyu (紐由), another man of the Eastern District, feigned the surrender of King Dongcheon to stop the Wei pursuit. Bearing food and gifts, Yuyu was allowed into the camp of an unnamed Wei general. When the general received him, Yuyu pulled out a hidden dagger from under the plates and fatally stabbed the Wei general. He was likewise killed by the attendants at the next moment, but the damage had been done — the Wei army, having lost their commander, was thrown into confusion.Hubert and Weems 1999 : 59. King Dongcheon took this opportunity to gather his forces and struck his enemy in three columns. The Wei armies, unable to recover from the confusion, "at last retired from Lelang". This passage was not paralleled in Chinese records. Travelling along the coast of what is called the

Sea of Japan The Sea of Japan is the marginal sea between the Japanese archipelago, Sakhalin, the Korean Peninsula, and the mainland of the Russian Far East. The Japanese archipelago separates the sea from the Pacific Ocean. Like the Mediterranean Sea, i ...

today, Wang Qi's army made its way to the lands of the North Okjeo, assumed to be around the Jiandao area today. Despite records suggesting that the king came to the North Okjeo settlement of Maegu (買溝, also named Chiguru 置溝婁; in present-day

Yanji Yanji (; Chosŏn'gŭl: 연길, ''Yeon-gil;'' Hangul: 옌지, ''Yenji;'' alternately romanized as Yenki) is a county-level city in the east of China's Jilin Province, and is the seat of the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture. Its population i ...

), there is no telling what became of the king in North Okjeo, and Wang Qi's army continued further north inland. Turning northwest at the border of Okjeo and the

Sushen Sushen is the modern Chinese name for an ancient ethnic group of people who lived in the northeastern part of China (in the area of modern Jilin and Heilongjiang) and what is in modern times the Russian Maritime Province and some other Siberi ...

, they traversed the

Mudan River The Mudan River (; IPA: ; ) is a river in Heilongjiang province in China. It is a right tributary of the Sunggari River. Its modern Chinese name can be translated as the "Peony River". In the past it was also known as the Hurka or Hurha River ...

basin (either by way of Ning'an or

Dunhua Dunhua (; Chosŏn'gŭl: 돈화; Hangul: 둔화) is a county-level city of the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture in southeastern Jilin province, People's Republic of China. It has more than 480,000 inhabitants (as of 2002) and was the capital ...

), home of the Yilou people, and crossed the Zhangguangcai Range into the plains on the other side. Finally, their trek northwest brought them to the

Buyeo kingdom Buyeo or Puyŏ ( Korean: 부여; Korean pronunciation: u.jʌ or 扶餘 ''Fúyú''), also rendered as Fuyu, was an ancient kingdom that was centered in northern Manchuria in modern-day northeast China. It is sometimes considered a Korea ...

on the Ashi River within present-day Harbin. Buyeo's regent Wigeo (位居), acting on behalf of the nominal King Maryeo (麻余王), formally received the Wei army outside their capital in present-day

Acheng District Acheng District ( Manchu Language: Alcuka Hoton) is one of nine districts of the prefecture-level city of Harbin, the capital of Heilongjiang Province, Northeast China, covering part of the southeastern suburbs. The district was approved to ...

and replenished their supplies. Having overextended their reach and lost sight of their target, Wang Qi's army turned southwest from Buyeo to return to Xuantu Commandery, passing by the present-day areas of

Nong'an County Nong'an County () is a county of Jilin Province, Northeast China, it is under the administration of the prefecture-level city of Changchun, the capital of Jilin. The westernmost county-level division of Changchun City, it borders Dehui to the e ...

and Kaiyuan. Upon their return, they had completed a circular trip traversing present-day Liaodong, North Korea, and Manchuria.

The subjugation of the Ye by Gong Zun and Liu Mao

Concurrently, Guanqiu Jian sent a detached force to attack the Ye of eastern Korea since they were allied with Goguryeo. The force, led by the grand administrators of Lelang and Daifang, Liu Mao (劉茂) and Gong Zun (弓遵) respectively, started from South Okjeo and went south through the whole length of the region known as the Seven Counties of Lingdong (嶺東七縣). Six out of the seven counties — Dongyi (東暆), Bunai (不耐; also named Bu'er 不而), Chantai (蠶台), Huali (華麗), Yatoumei (邪頭昧), Qianmo (前莫) — submitted to Liu Mao and Gong Zun, while the remaining Wozu county (夭租縣), being identical with Okjeo, had already been subjugated by Wang Qi. In particular, the Marquis of Bunai, the pre-eminent county of the seven, was specified to have come surrendering with all his tribesmen. Liu Mao and Gong Zun's march along the eastern coast of Korea may have brought them as far south as Uljin, where the local elders informed them of an inhabited island to the east, an island which could possibly be

Ulleungdo Ulleungdo (also spelled Ulreungdo; Hangul: , ) is a South Korean island 120 km (75 mi) east of the Korean Peninsula in the Sea of Japan, formerly known as the Dagelet Island or Argonaut Island in Europe. Volcanic in origin, the rocky s ...

. Another inscription was erected at Bunai, supposedly to commemorate the feats of Wang Qi, Liu Mao, and Gong Zun during the second campaign; however, unlike the tablet attributable to Guanqiu Jian, this inscription has not been found.

Aftermath and legacy

Although the king evaded capture, the Wei campaigns accomplished much to weaken the Goguryeo kingdom. Firstly, several thousands of the Goguryeo people were deported and resettled in

China proper China proper, Inner China, or the Eighteen Provinces is a term used by some Western writers in reference to the "core" regions of the Manchu-led Qing dynasty of China. This term is used to express a distinction between the "core" regions pop ...

. Secondly, and more importantly, the intrusions into Okjeo and Ye separated these Goguryeo tributaries from its central ruling structure and brought them back under the influence of the commanderies of Lelang and Daifang. In doing so, Wang Qi and his peers removed a substantial part of the Goguryeo economy and dealt Goguryeo a blow more severe than Gongsun Kang did forty years ago. The Ye under the Marquis of Bunai became expected to provide provisions and transportation whenever Lelang and Daifang went off to war, and the marquis himself was elevated to Ye King of Bunai (不耐濊王) by the Cao Wei court in 247. In addition, Wang Qi's incursion into Buyeo's territory and the subsequent welcome by the hosts reconfirmed the friendly relations between Wei and Buyeo, and tributes from Buyeo to Wei would continue annually. When King Dongcheon returned to Hwando, he found the city to be too ravaged by war and too close to the border to be a suitable capital, and thus relocated his capital to a "walled town in the plain" (平壤城, ''Pyeongyangseong'') in 247, moving his people and sacred shrines while leaving Hwando to ruin.Byington 2007 : 94. From this new capital, Goguryeo underwent significant reorganization, particularly in regards to its economic base, to recover from the devastation by the hands of Wei. Since the resources of Okjeo and Ye were deprived, Goguryeo had to rely on the production of the old capital region of Jolbon while looking for new agricultural lands in other directions. The history of Goguryeo in the latter half of the 3rd century was characterized by Goguryeo's attempts to consolidate nearby regions and restore stability as it dealt with rebellions and foreign invaders, including Wei again during 259 in which Goguryeo defeated Wei at Yangmaek, and the Sushen during 280 in which Goguryeo launched a counterattack on the Sushen and occupied their capital. According to the ''

'', during the Wei invasion in 259, King Jungcheon assembled 5,000 of his elite cavalry and defeated the invading Wei army at a valley in Yangmaek, killing 8,000 enemies. Goguryeo's fortunes rose again during King Micheon's rule (300-331), when the king took advantage of the weakness in Wei's successor the Jin dynasty and wrestled the commanderies of Lelang and Daifang from central Chinese control. By this time, Goguryeo completed seventy years of recovery and was transformed "from a Chinese border state, existing mainly by the plunder of the Chinese outposts in the northeast, to a kingdom centred in Korea proper, in which the formerly independent tribal communities of the Okjeo and others had been merged." In terms of

historiography Historiography is the study of the methods of historians in developing history as an academic discipline, and by extension is any body of historical work on a particular subject. The historiography of a specific topic covers how historians ha ...

, the expeditions of the second campaign are significant for providing detailed information on the various peoples of the Korean Peninsula and Manchuria, such as Goguryeo, Buyeo, Okjeo, Ye, and Yilou. The expedition, unprecedented in scale in those regions, brought first-hand knowledge about the topography, climate, population, language, manners, and customs of these areas to Chinese cognizance, and was duly recorded into the '' Weilüe'' by the contemporary historian

Yu Huan Yu Huan ( third century) was a historian of the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period of China. Life Yu Huan was from Jingzhao Commandery, which is around present-day Xi'an, Shaanxi.''Shitong'' vol. 12. He is best known for writin ...

.Ikeuchi 1929 : 101. Though the original ''Weilüe'' is now lost, its contents were preserved in the ''Records of Three Kingdoms'', where the reports from the Goguryeo expedition are included in the "Chapter on Eastern Barbarians" (東夷傳, ''

Dongyi The Dongyi or Eastern Yi () was a collective term for ancient peoples found in Chinese records. The definition of Dongyi varied across the ages, but in most cases referred to inhabitants of eastern China, then later, the Korean peninsula, and Ja ...

Zhuan'') — considered the most important single source of information for the culture and society of early states and peoples on the Korean Peninsula.

Notes

References

*Barnes, Gina Lee. ''State formation in Korea: historical and archaeological perspectives''.

Routledge Routledge () is a British multinational publisher. It was founded in 1836 by George Routledge, and specialises in providing academic books, journals and online resources in the fields of the humanities, behavioural science, education, law ...

, 2001. . *Byington, Mark E
"Control or Conquer? Koguryǒ's Relations with States and Peoples in Manchuria,"
''Journal of Northeast Asian History'' volume 4, number 1 (June 2007): 83-117. * *Gardiner, K.H.J. ''The Origin and Rise of the Korean Kingdom of Koguryǒ from the First Century BC to 313 AD''. Ph.D. thesis,

University of London The University of London (UoL; abbreviated as Lond or more rarely Londin in post-nominals) is a federal public research university located in London, England, United Kingdom. The university was established by royal charter in 1836 as a degree ...

, 1964. *Gardiner, K.H.J.
The early history of Korea: the historical development of the peninsula up to the introduction of Buddhism in the fourth century A.D.
'. Canberra, Centre of Oriental Studies in association with the Australian National University Press, 1969. . *Gardiner, K.H.J.
The Kung-sun Warlords of Liao-tung (189-238)
. ''Papers on Far Eastern History'' 5 (Canberra, March 1972). 59-107. *Gardiner, K.H.J.
The Kung-sun Warlords of Liao-tung (189-238) - Continued
. ''Papers on Far Eastern History'' 6 (Canberra, September 1972). 141-201. *Henthorn, William E. ''A History of Korea''. The Free Press, 1971. *Hubert, Homer B. & Weems, Clarence Norwood (Ed.) ''History of Korea'' Volume 1. Curzon Press, 1999. . *Ikeuchi, Hiroshi. "The Chinese Expeditions to Manchuria under the Wei dynasty," ''Memoirs of the Research Department of the Toyo Bunko'' 4 (1929): 71-119. * * {{DEFAULTSORT:Goguryeo-Wei War 244 245 240s conflicts Campaigns of the Three Kingdoms Wars involving Goguryeo Cao Wei