Mahmud Ghazan (5 November 1271 – 11 May 1304) (, Ghazan Khan, sometimes archaically spelled as Casanus by the Westerners) was the seventh ruler of the
Mongol Empire's
Ilkhanate division in modern-day
Iran from 1295 to 1304. He was the son of
Arghun
Arghun Khan (Mongolian Cyrillic: ''Аргун хан''; Traditional Mongolian: ; c. 1258 – 10 March 1291) was the fourth ruler of the Mongol empire's Ilkhanate, from 1284 to 1291. He was the son of Abaqa Khan, and like his father, was a dev ...
, grandson of
Abaqa Khan
Abaqa Khan (27 February 1234 – 4 April 1282, mn, Абаха/Абага хан (Khalkha Cyrillic), ( Traditional script), "paternal uncle", also transliterated Abaġa), was the second Mongol ruler (''Ilkhan'') of the Ilkhanate. The son of Hula ...
and great-grandson of
Hulagu Khan
Hulagu Khan, also known as Hülegü or Hulegu ( mn, Хүлэгү/ , lit=Surplus, translit=Hu’legu’/Qülegü; chg, ; Arabic: fa, هولاکو خان, ''Holâku Khân;'' ; 8 February 1265), was a Mongol ruler who conquered much of West ...
, continuing a long line of rulers who were direct descendants of
Genghis Khan. Considered the most prominent of the
Ilkhans
The Ilkhanate, also spelled Il-khanate ( fa, ایل خانان, ''Ilxānān''), known to the Mongols as ''Hülegü Ulus'' (, ''Qulug-un Ulus''), was a khanate established from the southwestern sector of the Mongol Empire. The Ilkhanid realm, ...
, he is perhaps best known for converting to
Islam and meeting
Imam Ibn Taymiyya in 1295 when he took the throne, marking a turning point for the dominant religion of the Mongols in
Western Asia
Western Asia, West Asia, or Southwest Asia, is the westernmost subregion of the larger geographical region of Asia, as defined by some academics, UN bodies and other institutions. It is almost entirely a part of the Middle East, and includes Ana ...
(Iran, Iraq, Anatolia and Transcaucasia). One of his many principal wives was
Kököchin
Kököchin, also Kökejin, Kūkājīn, Cocacin or Cozotine ( Mn: , Ch: ), was a 13th-century princess of the Mongol-led Chinese Yuan dynasty, belonging to the Mongol Bayaut tribe. In 1291, she was betrothed to the Ilkhanate khan Arghun by the Y ...
, a Mongol princess (originally betrothed to Ghazan's father Arghun before his death) sent by his great-uncle
Kublai Khan.
Military conflicts during Ghazan's reign included war with the Egyptian
Mamluks for control of
Syria, and battles with the Turko-Mongol
Chagatai Khanate
The Chagatai Khanate, or Chagatai Ulus ( xng, , translit=Čaɣatay-yin Ulus; mn, Цагаадайн улс, translit=Tsagaadain Uls; chg, , translit=Čağatāy Ulusi; fa, , translit=Xânât-e Joghatây) was a Mongol and later Turkicized kh ...
. Ghazan also pursued diplomatic contacts with Europe, continuing his predecessors' unsuccessful attempts at forming a
Franco-Mongol alliance
Several attempts at a Franco-Mongol alliance against the Islamic caliphates, their common enemy, were made by various leaders among the Frankish Crusaders and the Mongol Empire in the 13th century. Such an alliance might have seemed an obvious c ...
. A man of high culture, Ghazan spoke multiple languages, had many hobbies, and reformed many elements of the Ilkhanate, especially in the matter of standardizing currency and fiscal policy.
Childhood
Ghazan's parents were
Arghun
Arghun Khan (Mongolian Cyrillic: ''Аргун хан''; Traditional Mongolian: ; c. 1258 – 10 March 1291) was the fourth ruler of the Mongol empire's Ilkhanate, from 1284 to 1291. He was the son of Abaqa Khan, and like his father, was a dev ...
and his concubine Kultak Egechi of the
Dörben tribe. At the time of their marriage, Arghun was 12. Kultak's elder sister Ashlun was the wife of Tübshin, son of
Hulagu
Hulagu Khan, also known as Hülegü or Hulegu ( mn, Хүлэгү/ , lit=Surplus, translit=Hu’legu’/Qülegü; chg, ; Arabic: fa, هولاکو خان, ''Holâku Khân;'' ; 8 February 1265), was a Mongol ruler who conquered much of West ...
and previous viceroy in Khorasan. According to
Rashid al-Din, the marriage took place in
Mazandaran, where Arghun was viceroy. Ghazan was born on 5 November 1271 in
Abaskun (near modern
Bandar Turkman) though he was raised in the
Ordo
''Ordo'' (Latin "order, rank, class") may refer to:
* A musical phrase constructed from one or more statements of a rhythmic mode pattern and ending in a rest
* Big O notation in calculation of algorithm computational complexity
* Orda (organizatio ...
(nomadic palace-tent) of his grandfather Abaqa's favorite wife,
Buluqhan Khatun
Buluqhan Khatun (; ), also Bulughan, Bulukhan, Bolgana, Bulugan, Zibeline or ''Bolghara'' for Marco Polo, was a 13th-century Mongol princess, and the principal wife of the Mongol Ilkhanid ruler Abaqa (1234–1282).
Life
She belonged to th ...
, who herself was childless. Ghazan and Arghun didn't see each other until Abaqa's attack on
Qaraunas
The Qara'unas or Negüderi were a Mongol people who settled in Afghanistan after moving from Turkestan and Mongolia.
Foundation
The word Qarauna derived from the Mongolian word ''Qara'' meaning black in Mongolian. At first they were subjects ...
in 1279 where they briefly met.
Ghazan was raised a
Christian, as was his brother
Oljeitu. The Mongols were traditionally tolerant of multiple religions, and during Ghazan's youth, he was educated by a Chinese monk, who taught him
Chinese
Chinese can refer to:
* Something related to China
* Chinese people, people of Chinese nationality, citizenship, and/or ethnicity
**''Zhonghua minzu'', the supra-ethnic concept of the Chinese nation
** List of ethnic groups in China, people of v ...
and
Buddhism
Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and gra ...
, as well as the
Mongolian and
Uighur scripts.
Under Tekuder
He lived together with Gaykhatu in
Buluqhan Khatun
Buluqhan Khatun (; ), also Bulughan, Bulukhan, Bolgana, Bulugan, Zibeline or ''Bolghara'' for Marco Polo, was a 13th-century Mongol princess, and the principal wife of the Mongol Ilkhanid ruler Abaqa (1234–1282).
Life
She belonged to th ...
's encampment in Baghdad after Abaqa's death. He reunited again with his father when Buluqhan Khatun wed to Arghun and became Ghazan's step-mother.
Rule in Khorasan
Under Arghun
After the overthrow of
Tekuder
Ahmed Tekuder ( Mongolian: ''Tegülder'', meaning “perfect”; fa, تکودر) (c.1246 10 August 1284), also known as Sultan Ahmad (reigned 1282–1284), was the sultan of the Persian-based Ilkhanate, son of Hulegu and brother of Abaqa. He wa ...
in 1284, Ghazan's father Arghun was enthroned as Ilkhan, the 11-year-old Ghazan became viceroy, and he moved to the capital of
Khorasan
Khorasan may refer to:
* Greater Khorasan, a historical region which lies mostly in modern-day northern/northwestern Afghanistan, northeastern Iran, southern Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan
* Khorasan Province, a pre-2004 province of Ira ...
, never to see Arghun again. Emir Tegene was appointed as his deputy, whom he didn't like very much. In 1289, conflict with other Mongols ensued when a revolt was led against Arghun by
Nawruz, a young emir of the
Oirat clan, whose father had been civil governor of Persia before the arrival of Hulagu. Ghazan's deputy Tegene was among the victims of Nawruz's raid on 20 April 1289 in which he was captured and imprisoned. Nawruz's protege, Prince Hulachu was arrested by Ghazan's commander
Mulay
Mulay, Mûlay, Bulay ( or Molay for the Franks, ) was a general under the Mongol Ilkhanate ruler Ghazan at the end of the 13th century. Mulay was part of the 1299–1300 Mongol offensive in Syria and Palestine, and remained with a small force to o ...
ten days later. When Nawruz was defeated by Arghun's reinforcements in 1290, he fled the Ilkhanate and joined the alliance of
Kaidu
Kaidu (Middle Mongol: , Modern Mongol: / , ; ; c. 1230 – 1301) was a grandson of the Mongol khagan Ögedei (1185–1241) and thus leader of the House of Ögedei and the ''de facto'' khan of the Chagatai Khanate, a division of the Mongol E ...
, another descendant of Genghis Khan who was the ruler of both the
House of Ögedei
The House of Ögedei, sometimes called the Ögedeids, was an influential Mongol family and a branch of the Borjigin clan from the 12th to 14th centuries. They were descended from Ögedei (c. 1186–1241), a son of Genghis Khan who succeeded his ...
and the neighboring
Chagatai Khanate
The Chagatai Khanate, or Chagatai Ulus ( xng, , translit=Čaɣatay-yin Ulus; mn, Цагаадайн улс, translit=Tsagaadain Uls; chg, , translit=Čağatāy Ulusi; fa, , translit=Xânât-e Joghatây) was a Mongol and later Turkicized kh ...
. Ghazan spent the next ten years defending the frontier of the Ilkhanate against incursions by the Chagatai Khanate of Central Asia.
Under Gaykhatu
When his father, Arghun, died in 1291, Ghazan was prevented from pursuing his claim of leadership in the capital because he was engaged both with Nawruz's raids, and dealing with rebellion and famine in Khorasan and
Nishapur.
Taghachar, an army commander who had served the previous three generations of Ilkhans, was probably behind the death of Arghun, and supported Ghazan's uncle
Gaykhatu
Gaykhatu (Mongolian script:; ) was the fifth Ilkhanate ruler in Iran. He reigned from 1291 to 1295. His Buddhist baghshi gave him the Tibetan name Rinchindorj () which appeared on his paper money.
Early life
He was born to Abaqa and Nukdan K ...
as the new Ilkhan. Despite being boyhood rivals, Gaykhatu sent aid to Ghazan's fight against Nawruz in Khorasan under the leadership of Prince Anbarchi (son of
Möngke Temür
Möngke Temür ( or ) or Dudu Mengtemu (Manchu: ;遼寧省檔案館 『滿州實錄 上函』 ) (1370–1433) was a Jurchen chieftain of the Odoli tribe, one of the three tribes of the lower Sunggari river valley in Manchuria. In the 1380s the tr ...
) and emirs Tuladai, Quncuqbal and El Temür; himself going to Anatolia to quell
Turcoman uprisings. However, famine reached his court too in spring and Anbarchi, unable to feed his soldiers, had to leave soon for Azerbaijan again. He again tried to visit Gaykhatu, but after his refusal, he had to go back. Ghazan received
Kököchin
Kököchin, also Kökejin, Kūkājīn, Cocacin or Cozotine ( Mn: , Ch: ), was a 13th-century princess of the Mongol-led Chinese Yuan dynasty, belonging to the Mongol Bayaut tribe. In 1291, she was betrothed to the Ilkhanate khan Arghun by the Y ...
, a Mongol princess from the
Yuan dynasty in
China, on his way back from
Tabriz
Tabriz ( fa, تبریز ; ) is a city in northwestern Iran, serving as the capital of East Azerbaijan Province. It is the sixth-most-populous city in Iran. In the Quru River valley in Iran's historic Azerbaijan region between long ridges of vo ...
to Khorasan. She had been brought from the east in a caravan which included
Marco Polo
Marco Polo (, , ; 8 January 1324) was a Venetian merchant, explorer and writer who travelled through Asia along the Silk Road between 1271 and 1295. His travels are recorded in ''The Travels of Marco Polo'' (also known as ''Book of the Marv ...
among hundreds of other travellers. She had originally been betrothed to Ghazan's father, the Ilkhan Arghun, but since he had died during her months-long journey, she instead married his son Ghazan.
In 1294, Ghazan forced Nawruz to surrender at
Nishapur and Nawruz then became one of Ghazan's lieutenants. Ghazan was loyal to his uncle, though he refused to follow Gaykhatu's lead in introducing
paper currency
A banknote—also called a bill ( North American English), paper money, or simply a note—is a type of negotiable promissory note, made by a bank or other licensed authority, payable to the bearer on demand.
Banknotes were originally issue ...
to his province, explaining that the weather of Khorasan was too humid to handle paper.
Against Baydu
In 1295,
Taghachar and his conspirators, who probably had been behind the death of Arghun, had his successor Gaykhatu killed as well. They then placed the controllable
Baydu Baydu (Mongolian script:; ) (died 1295) was the sixth ruler of the Mongol empire's Ilkhanate division in Iran. He was the son of Taraqai, who was in turn the fifth son of Hulagu Khan.Stevens, John. ''The history of Persia. Containing, the lives and ...
, a cousin of Ghazan, on the throne. Baydu was primarily a figurehead, allowing the conspirators to divide the Ilkhanate among themselves. Hearing Gaykhatu's murder, Ghazan marched on Baydu. Baydu explained the fact that Ghazan was away during events leading to Gaykhatu's fall, therefore nobles had no choice but to raise him to throne. Nevertheless,
Amir Nowruz encouraged Ghazan to take steps against Baydu, because he was nothing but a figurehead under grips of nobles. Baydu's forces commanded by Ildar (his cousin and Prince Ajay's son), Eljidei and Chichak met him near
Qazvin. Ghazan's army were commanded by Prince Sogai (son of
Yoshmut
Yoshmut () was Ilkhanate prince and one of eldest sons of Hulagu. According to Dai Matsui and Daniel King, his name was of Christian Uyghur origin and ultimately derived from Sogdian word "''ʿywšmbt''" (cognate with ).
Life
He was born to H ...
), Buralghi, Nowruz,
Qutluqshah and Nurin Aqa. First battle was won by Ghazan but he had to fall back after realising Ildar's contingent was just a fraction of whole army, leaving Nowruz behind. Nevertheless, he captured Arslan, a descendant of
Jochi Qasar.
After a short truce, Baydu offered Ghazan co-rulership of the Ilkhanate and offered Nowruz the post of ''sahib-i divan'' to which as a counter-condition Ghazan demanded the revenues of his father's hereditary lands in
Fars,
Persian Iraq and
Kerman. Nowruz refused these conditions, which led to its arrest. According to an anecdote, he promised to bring Ghazan back tied-up on condition of his release. Once he reached Ghazan, he sent back a
cauldron
A cauldron (or caldron) is a large pot (kettle) for cooking or boiling over an open fire, with a lid and frequently with an arc-shaped hanger and/or integral handles or feet. There is a rich history of cauldron lore in religion, mythology, and ...
to Baydu; a word play on the Turkish word
kazan. Nowruz promised him the throne and his help on condition of Ghazan's conversion to
Islam. Ghazan converted to
Islam, on June 16, 1295, at the hands of Ibrahim ibn Muhammad ibn al-Mu'ayyid ibn Hamaweyh al-Khurasani al-Juwayni as a condition for Nawruz's military support. Nowruz entered Qazvin with 4,000 soldiers and claimed an additional number of 120,000 soldiers commanded by Ebügen (in other sources, 30,000) - descendant of Jochi Qasar - on his way towards Azerbaijan which caused panic among masses which was followed by defections of Taghachar's subordinates (thanks to Taghachar's vizier Sadr ul-Din Zanjani) and other powerful emirs like Qurumishi and
Chupan
Amir Chūpān ( fa, امیر چوپان; died November 1327), also spelt Choban or Coban, was a Chupanid noble of the Ilkhanate, and nominal general of the Mongol Empire. He was ennobled by Emperor Taiding of Yuan as Duke of Yi (翊國公).
Ba ...
on 28 August 1295.
Seeing imminent defeat, Baydu asked for Taghachar's support, ignorant of his defection. After realising Taghachar's withdrawal, he fled to Emir Tukal in
Georgia
Georgia most commonly refers to:
* Georgia (country), a country in the Caucasus region of Eurasia
* Georgia (U.S. state), a state in the Southeast United States
Georgia may also refer to:
Places
Historical states and entities
* Related to the ...
on 26 September 1295. Ghazan's commanders found him near
Nakhchivan and arrested him, taking back to
Tabriz
Tabriz ( fa, تبریز ; ) is a city in northwestern Iran, serving as the capital of East Azerbaijan Province. It is the sixth-most-populous city in Iran. In the Quru River valley in Iran's historic Azerbaijan region between long ridges of vo ...
, having him executed on October 4, 1295.
Early reign
Ghazan declared his victory after the execution of Baydu on the outskirts of
Tabriz
Tabriz ( fa, تبریز ; ) is a city in northwestern Iran, serving as the capital of East Azerbaijan Province. It is the sixth-most-populous city in Iran. In the Quru River valley in Iran's historic Azerbaijan region between long ridges of vo ...
on 4 October 1295, he entered the city. After this declaration, several appointments, orders and executions came as usual - Gaykhatu's son Alafrang's son-in-law Eljidai Qushchi was executed,
Nawruz was rewarded with of state and was given extreme power, akin to
Buqa
Buqa (or Bugha) (died January 16, 1289) was a Mongol lord and chancellor who was instrumental in sweeping Arghun to power as the fourth Il-Khan of Iran in 1284 and became his chief minister (vizier) and advisor, succeeding Shams ad-Din Juvayni w ...
's back in the day of Arghun. Nawruz on his part issued a formal edict in opposition to other religions in the Ilkhanate. Nawruz loyalists persecuted Buddhists and Christians to such an extent that Iranian Buddhism never recovered, the
Nestorian
Nestorianism is a term used in Christian theology and Church history to refer to several mutually related but doctrinarily distinct sets of teachings. The first meaning of the term is related to the original teachings of Christian theologian N ...
cathedral in the Mongol capital of
Maragha was looted, and churches in Tabriz and
Hamadan
Hamadan () or Hamedan ( fa, همدان, ''Hamedān'') (Old Persian: Haŋgmetana, Ecbatana) is the capital city of Hamadan Province of Iran. At the 2019 census, its population was 783,300 in 230,775 families. The majority of people living in Ha ...
were destroyed. Baydu loyalists too were purged - emirs Jirghadai and Qoncuqbal were executed on 10 and 15 October respectively. Qoncuqbal was specifically hated for his murder of Aq Buqa Jalair, his executioner was Nawruz's brother Hajji, who was also Aq Buqa's son-in-law. Taghachar's protege, Sadr ul-Din Zanjani was granted the office of vizier, following deposition of Baydu's vizier Jamal ud-Din. He re-appointed
Taghachar to the Anatolian viceroyalty on 10 November 1295. Another series of executions came after 1296: Prince Ajai's son Ildar fled to Anatolia on 6 February but was captured and executed; Yesütai, an
Oirat commander who supported
Hulagu
Hulagu Khan, also known as Hülegü or Hulegu ( mn, Хүлэгү/ , lit=Surplus, translit=Hu’legu’/Qülegü; chg, ; Arabic: fa, هولاکو خان, ''Holâku Khân;'' ; 8 February 1265), was a Mongol ruler who conquered much of West ...
's son-in-law Taraghai in his migration to
Mamluk Syria was executed on 24 May and Buralghi Qiyatai, a commander who was rebellious against Arghun was executed on 12 February.
Meanwhile
Nogai, kingmaker in the
Golden Horde, was murdered and his wife Chubei fled to Ghazan with his son Torai (or Büri) who was
Abaqa
Abaqa Khan (27 February 1234 – 4 April 1282, mn, Абаха/Абага хан (Khalkha Cyrillic), ( Traditional script), "paternal uncle", also transliterated Abaġa), was the second Mongol ruler (''Ilkhan'') of the Ilkhanate. The son of Hulag ...
's son-in-law in 1296.
Purge of nobles
Ghazan eased the troubles with the
Golden Horde, but the
Ögedeids and
Chagataids
The Chagatai Khanate, or Chagatai Ulus ( xng, , translit=Čaɣatay-yin Ulus; mn, Цагаадайн улс, translit=Tsagaadain Uls; chg, , translit=Čağatāy Ulusi; fa, , translit=Xânât-e Joghatây) was a Mongol and later Turkicized kh ...
in Central Asia continued to pose a serious threat to both the Ilkhanate and his overlord and ally to the Great Khan in China. When Ghazan was crowned, the
Chagatayid Khan
The Chagatai Khans were the monarchs of the Chagatai Khanate from Chagatai Khan's inheritance of the state in 1227 to their removal from power by the Dzungars and their vassals in 1687. The power of the Chagatai Khans varied; from its beginning, ...
Duwa invaded Khorasan on 9 December 1295. Ghazan sent two of his relatives - Prince Sogai (son of
Yoshmut
Yoshmut () was Ilkhanate prince and one of eldest sons of Hulagu. According to Dai Matsui and Daniel King, his name was of Christian Uyghur origin and ultimately derived from Sogdian word "''ʿywšmbt''" (cognate with ).
Life
He was born to H ...
) and Esen Temür (son of
Qonqurtai Qonqurtai () was a Mongol prince and viceroy of Anatolia for the Ilkhanate khanate.
Life
Qonqurtai was born to Hulagu Khan and Ajuja Aguchi, his Khitan concubine wife. Qonqurtai was Hulagu's ninth son and was the senior commander during the re ...
) against the army of Chagatai Khanate but they deserted, believing this was Nawruz's plot to further deprive the nobility of their possessions. Nawruz informed Ghazan of this plot, subsequently executing them in 1296. Another Borjigid prince, Arslan who was captured by Ghazan previously and pardoned, revolted in
Bilasuvar. After a series of battles near
Baylaqan he too was captured and executed, along with the rebellious emirs on 29 March.
Following the purge of princes, Taghachar was thought to have been implicated in the rebellion of Prince Sogai and was declared a rebel.
Taghachar strengthened himself in
Tokat and resisted against Ghazan's commanders Harmanji, Baltu and Arap (son of
Samagar). He was soon arrested by Baltu near
Delice
Delice is a town and district of Kırıkkale Province in the Central Anatolia region of Turkey
Turkey ( tr, Türkiye ), officially the Republic of Türkiye ( tr, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti, links=no ), is a transcontinental country located ma ...
and was delivered to Ghazan in 1296. Shortly afterwards Ghazan reluctantly ordered the murder of Taghachar; he recognised that he had been a help and that he was not an imminent threat, and explained his decision by reference to a Chinese story about the execution of a commander who saved a future emperor by betraying a former one. His protege Sadr ul-Din Zanjani was revoked from the vizierate and arrested in March 1296, but pardoned thanks to the intervention of Buluqhan Khatun.
The purges were followed by the executions of
Chormaqan
Chormaqan (also Chormagan or Chormaqan Noyan) (; Khalkha Mongolian: ; died c. 1241) was one of the most famous generals of the Mongol Empire under Genghis Khan and Ögedei Khan. He was also a member of the keshik.
Career
A member of the Sunud t ...
's grandson Baighut on 7 September 1296, Hazaraspid ruler
Afrasiab I in October 1296, Baydu's vizier Jamal ud-Din Dastgerdani on 27 October 1296.
Revolt of Baltu
Taghachar's death triggered the revolt of Baltu of the
Jalayir
Jalair ( mn, Жалайр; ; ), also Djalair, Yyalair, Jalayir, is one of the Darliqin Mongol tribes according to Rashid-al-Din Hamadani's '' Jami' al-tawarikh''. They lived along the Shilka River in modern Zabaykalsky Krai of Russia.History of ...
, in Anatolia, where he was stationed since Abaqa's reign. He was supported by Ildar (son of
Qonqurtai Qonqurtai () was a Mongol prince and viceroy of Anatolia for the Ilkhanate khanate.
Life
Qonqurtai was born to Hulagu Khan and Ajuja Aguchi, his Khitan concubine wife. Qonqurtai was Hulagu's ninth son and was the senior commander during the re ...
), who was arrested and executed in September 1296. Two months later, Qutluqshah invaded Anatolia with 30,000 men and crushed Baltu's revolt, arresting him in June. He was brought to
Tabriz
Tabriz ( fa, تبریز ; ) is a city in northwestern Iran, serving as the capital of East Azerbaijan Province. It is the sixth-most-populous city in Iran. In the Quru River valley in Iran's historic Azerbaijan region between long ridges of vo ...
and jailed there until 14 September 1297, when he was executed along with his son. Seljuk Sultan of Rum
Mesud II on the other hand was arrested and jailed in
Hamadan
Hamadan () or Hamedan ( fa, همدان, ''Hamedān'') (Old Persian: Haŋgmetana, Ecbatana) is the capital city of Hamadan Province of Iran. At the 2019 census, its population was 783,300 in 230,775 families. The majority of people living in Ha ...
.
Fall of Nawruz
Nawruz soon embroiled himself in an argument with Nurin Aqa, who was more popular with the military and then left
Khorasan
Khorasan may refer to:
* Greater Khorasan, a historical region which lies mostly in modern-day northern/northwestern Afghanistan, northeastern Iran, southern Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan
* Khorasan Province, a pre-2004 province of Ira ...
. After returning to the west, he survived an assassination attempt by a soldier named Tuqtay, who claimed that Nawruz murdered his own father,
Arghun Aqa
Arghun Agha, also Arghun Aqa or Arghun the Elder (; ; - 1275) was a Mongol noble of the Oirat clan in the 13th century. He was a governor in the Mongol-controlled area of Persia from 1243 to 1255, before the Ilkhanate was created by Hulagu. Ar ...
. Soon he was accused of treason by Sadr al-Din Khaladi, ''sahib-divan'' of Ghazan by a secret alliance with the
Mamlukes. Indeed, according to Mamluk sources, Nawruz corresponded with
Sultan Lajin. Using the opportunity, Ghazan started a purge against Nawruz and his followers in May 1297. His brother Hajji Narin and his follower Satalmish were executed, along with Nawruz's children in
Hamadan
Hamadan () or Hamedan ( fa, همدان, ''Hamedān'') (Old Persian: Haŋgmetana, Ecbatana) is the capital city of Hamadan Province of Iran. At the 2019 census, its population was 783,300 in 230,775 families. The majority of people living in Ha ...
, his other brother Lagzi Güregen was also put to death in
Iraq on 2 April 1297. His 12-year-old son Toghai was spared due to efforts of Bulughan Khatun Khurasani, Ghazan's wife
Arghun Aqa
Arghun Agha, also Arghun Aqa or Arghun the Elder (; ; - 1275) was a Mongol noble of the Oirat clan in the 13th century. He was a governor in the Mongol-controlled area of Persia from 1243 to 1255, before the Ilkhanate was created by Hulagu. Ar ...
's granddaughter and given to the household of Amir Husayn. Others who were spared, were his brother Yol Qutluq and his nephew Kuchluk. Later that year Ghazan marched against Nawrūz himself, who at the time was the commander of the army of
Khorassan. Ghazan's forces were victorious at a battle near Nishapur. Nawrūz took refuge at the court of the ''Malik'' (king) of
Herat
Herāt (; Persian: ) is an oasis city and the third-largest city of Afghanistan. In 2020, it had an estimated population of 574,276, and serves as the capital of Herat Province, situated south of the Paropamisus Mountains (''Selseleh-ye Safē ...
in northern
Afghanistan
Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan,; prs, امارت اسلامی افغانستان is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central Asia and South Asia. Referred to as the Heart of Asia, it is bordere ...
, but the Malik betrayed him and delivered Nawruz to
Qutlughshah, who had Nawruz executed immediately on August 13.
[Roux, p. 432]
Relationship with other Mongol khanates
Ghazan maintained strong ties with the Great Khan of the
Yuan and the Golden Horde. In 1296
Temür Khan
Öljeytü Khan ( Mongolian: Өлзийт; Mongolian script: '; ), born Temür ( mn, Төмөр ; ; October 15, 1265 – February 10, 1307), also known as Emperor Chengzong of Yuan () by his temple name ''Chengzong'', was the second emperor of the ...
, the successor of Kublai Khan, dispatched a military commander, Baiju, to Mongol Persia. Five years later Ghazan sent his Mongolian and Persian retainers to collect income from Hulagu's holdings in China. While there, they presented tribute to Temür and were involved in cultural exchanges across Mongol Eurasia. Ghazan also called upon other Mongol Khans to unite their will under Temür Khan, in which he was supported by Kaidu's enemy,
Bayan Khan of the
White Horde
The eldest son of Genghis Khan, (who established the Mongol Empire) Jochi had several sons. When he died, they inherited their father's dominions as fiefs under the rule of their brothers, Batu Khan, as supreme khan and Orda Khan, who, although ...
. Ghazan's court had Chinese physicians present.
Later reign
In order to stabilize the country Ghazan attempted to control the situation and continued the executions - Taiju (son of
Möngke Temür
Möngke Temür ( or ) or Dudu Mengtemu (Manchu: ;遼寧省檔案館 『滿州實錄 上函』 ) (1370–1433) was a Jurchen chieftain of the Odoli tribe, one of the three tribes of the lower Sunggari river valley in Manchuria. In the 1380s the tr ...
) on 15 April 1298 on charges of
sedition
Sedition is overt conduct, such as speech and organization, that tends toward rebellion against the established order. Sedition often includes subversion of a constitution and incitement of discontent toward, or insurrection against, establ ...
, vizier Sadr ul-Din Zanjani on 4 May and his brother Qutb ul-Din and with cousin Qawam ul-Mulk on 3 June on charges of
embezzlement, Abu Bakr Dadqabadi on 10 October. Ghazan appointed a Jewish convert to Islam -
Rashid-al-Din Hamadani as new vizier succeeding Sadr ul-Din Zanjani, a post which Rashid held for the next 20 years, until 1318.
Ghazan also commissioned Rashid-al-Din to produce a history of the Mongols and their dynasty, the ''
Jami' al-tawarikh'' "Compendium of Chronicles" or ''Universal History''. Over several years of expansion, the work grew to cover the entire history of the world since the time of
Adam
Adam; el, Ἀδάμ, Adám; la, Adam is the name given in Genesis 1-5 to the first human. Beyond its use as the name of the first man, ''adam'' is also used in the Bible as a pronoun, individually as "a human" and in a collective sense as ...
, and was completed during the reign of Ghazan's successor, Oljeitu. Many copies were made, a few of which survive to the modern day.
After Taiju's execution, he appointed Nurin Aqa as viceroy of
Arran on 11 September 1298.
Revolt of Sulemish
Sulemish (grandson of
Baiju), whom Qutlughshah appointed as viceroy in Anatolia after Baltu's revolt, rebelled himself in 1299. He assembled a 20,000 strong force, which postponed Ghazan's plan to invade Syria. Qutlugshah was forced to come back from Arran and won a victory against him, on 27 April 1299 near
Erzinjan, causing the rebels to flee to
Mamluk Egypt
The Mamluk Sultanate ( ar, سلطنة المماليك, translit=Salṭanat al-Mamālīk), also known as Mamluk Egypt or the Mamluk Empire, was a state that ruled Egypt, the Levant and the Hejaz (western Arabia) from the mid-13th to early 16th ...
. He returned with Mamluk reinforcements to Anatolia but was defeated again. He was brought to Tabriz and executed by burning on 27 September 1299.
Mamluk-Ilkhanid War
Ghazan was one of a long line of Mongol leaders who engaged in diplomatic communications with the Europeans and
Crusaders
The Crusades were a series of religious wars initiated, supported, and sometimes directed by the Latin Church in the medieval period. The best known of these Crusades are those to the Holy Land in the period between 1095 and 1291 that were in ...
in attempts to form a
Franco-Mongol alliance
Several attempts at a Franco-Mongol alliance against the Islamic caliphates, their common enemy, were made by various leaders among the Frankish Crusaders and the Mongol Empire in the 13th century. Such an alliance might have seemed an obvious c ...
against their common enemy, primarily the Egyptian
Mamluks. He already had the use of forces from Christian vassal countries such as
Cilician Armenia
The Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia ( Middle Armenian: , '), also known as Cilician Armenia ( hy, Կիլիկեան Հայաստան, '), Lesser Armenia, Little Armenia or New Armenia, and formerly known as the Armenian Principality of Cilicia ( hy ...
and
Georgia
Georgia most commonly refers to:
* Georgia (country), a country in the Caucasus region of Eurasia
* Georgia (U.S. state), a state in the Southeast United States
Georgia may also refer to:
Places
Historical states and entities
* Related to the ...
. The plan was to coordinate actions between Ghazan's forces, the Christian military orders, and the aristocracy of Cyprus to defeat the Egyptians, after which Jerusalem would be returned to the Europeans. Many Europeans are known to have worked for Ghazan, such as
Isol the Pisan or
Buscarello de Ghizolfi, often in high positions. Hundreds of such Western adventurers entered into the service of Mongol rulers. According to historian
Peter Jackson, the 14th century saw such a vogue of Mongol things in the West that many new-born children in Italy were named after Mongol rulers, including Ghazan: names such as ''Can Grande'' ("Great Khan"), ''Alaone'' (
Hulagu
Hulagu Khan, also known as Hülegü or Hulegu ( mn, Хүлэгү/ , lit=Surplus, translit=Hu’legu’/Qülegü; chg, ; Arabic: fa, هولاکو خان, ''Holâku Khân;'' ; 8 February 1265), was a Mongol ruler who conquered much of West ...
, Ghazan's great-grandfather), ''Argone'' (
Arghun
Arghun Khan (Mongolian Cyrillic: ''Аргун хан''; Traditional Mongolian: ; c. 1258 – 10 March 1291) was the fourth ruler of the Mongol empire's Ilkhanate, from 1284 to 1291. He was the son of Abaqa Khan, and like his father, was a dev ...
, Ghazan's father) or ''Cassano'' (Ghazan) were recorded with a high frequency.
In October 1299, Ghazan marched with his forces towards Syria and invited the Christians to join him. His army took the city of
Aleppo
)), is an adjective which means "white-colored mixed with black".
, motto =
, image_map =
, mapsize =
, map_caption =
, image_map1 =
...
, and was there joined by his vassal King
Hethum II of the
Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia
The Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia ( Middle Armenian: , '), also known as Cilician Armenia ( hy, Կիլիկեան Հայաստան, '), Lesser Armenia, Little Armenia or New Armenia, and formerly known as the Armenian Principality of Cilicia ( hy ...
, whose forces included some
Templars
, colors = White mantle with a red cross
, colors_label = Attire
, march =
, mascot = Two knights riding a single horse
, equipment ...
and
Hospitallers
The Order of Knights of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem ( la, Ordo Fratrum Hospitalis Sancti Ioannis Hierosolymitani), commonly known as the Knights Hospitaller (), was a medieval and early modern Catholic military order. It was headqu ...
, and who participated in the rest of the offensive. The Mongols and their allies defeated the Mamluks in the
Battle of Wadi al-Khazandar
The Battle of Wadi al-Khaznadar, also known as the Third Battle of Homs, was a Mongol victory over the Mamluks in 1299.''Wadi 'L-Khaznadar'', R. Amitai, The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Vol XI, ed. P.J.Bearman, T.Bianquis, C.E.Bosworth, E. van Donzel ...
, on December 23 or 24, 1299.
One group of Mongols then split off from Ghazan's army and pursued the retreating Mamluk troops as far as
Gaza, pushing them back to Egypt. The bulk of Ghazan's forces proceeded to
Damascus, which surrendered somewhere between December 30, 1299, and January 6, 1300, though its
Citadel
A citadel is the core fortified area of a town or city. It may be a castle, fortress, or fortified center. The term is a diminutive of "city", meaning "little city", because it is a smaller part of the city of which it is the defensive core.
In ...
resisted.
[Demurger, p. 142.] Most of Ghazan's forces then retreated in February, probably because their horses needed fodder. He promised to return in the winter of 1300–1301 to attack Egypt.
[Schein, 1979, p. 810] About 10,000 horsemen under the Mongol general
Mulay
Mulay, Mûlay, Bulay ( or Molay for the Franks, ) was a general under the Mongol Ilkhanate ruler Ghazan at the end of the 13th century. Mulay was part of the 1299–1300 Mongol offensive in Syria and Palestine, and remained with a small force to o ...
were left to briefly rule Syria, before they too retreated.
Ghazan was indeed feared and despised by the
Mamluk
Mamluk ( ar, مملوك, mamlūk (singular), , ''mamālīk'' (plural), translated as "one who is owned", meaning "slave", also transliterated as ''Mameluke'', ''mamluq'', ''mamluke'', ''mameluk'', ''mameluke'', ''mamaluke'', or ''marmeluke'') i ...
s, who sent a delegation of leading scholars and
imams including
Ibn Taymiyya, north from Damascus to
al-Nabk
An-Nabek or Al-Nabek ( ar, ٱلنَّبْك, an-Nabk) is a Syrian city administratively belonging to Rif Dimashq and the capital of the Qalamoun. Located north of Damascus and south of Homs. It has an altitude of 1255 meters. According to the ...
, where Ghazan was encamped, in January 1300, in order to persuade Ghazan to stop his attack on Damascus. Ibn Taymiyya also may have met the envoys of Ghazan, including the qadi Diya' al-Din Muhammad, in Damascus in August 1301. On one of these occasions, it is reported that not one of the scholars dared to say anything to Ghazan except
Ibn Taymiyyah
Ibn Taymiyyah (January 22, 1263 – September 26, 1328; ar, ابن تيمية), birth name Taqī ad-Dīn ʾAḥmad ibn ʿAbd al-Ḥalīm ibn ʿAbd al-Salām al-Numayrī al-Ḥarrānī ( ar, تقي الدين أحمد بن عبد الحليم � ...
who said:
''"You claim that you are Muslim and you have with you Mu'adhdhins,
Muftis,
Imams and
Shaykhs but you invaded us and reached our country for what? Although your father and your grandfather,
Hulagu
Hulagu Khan, also known as Hülegü or Hulegu ( mn, Хүлэгү/ , lit=Surplus, translit=Hu’legu’/Qülegü; chg, ; Arabic: fa, هولاکو خان, ''Holâku Khân;'' ; 8 February 1265), was a Mongol ruler who conquered much of West ...
were non-believers, they did not attack us and they kept their promise. But you promised and broke your promise."''
It is reported that on the Mu'jamus Shuyuukh, Ibn Hajar Al-Asqalani said that Mongol leader was apostate when he struggled against Mamluks and he converted to Christianity and built the Nestorian Cathedral to dedicated himself. He preferred to ally with Crusade Nations and he had chosen to attack Mamluks army and slaughtered them. The Mongol leader was none other than Ghazan Khan.
In July 1300, the Crusaders formed a small fleet of sixteen galleys with some smaller vessels to raid the coast, and Ghazan's ambassador traveled with them.
[Demurger, p. 147.][Schein, 1979, p. 811.] The Crusader forces also attempted to establish a base at the small island of
Ruad, from which raids were launched on
Tartus while awaiting Ghazan's forces. However, the Mongol army was delayed, and the Crusader forces retreated to Cyprus, leaving a garrison on Ruad which was besieged and captured by Mamluks by 1303 (see
Siege of Ruad
The fall of Ruad in 1302 was one of the culminating events of the Crusades in the Eastern Mediterranean. When the garrison on the tiny Isle of Ruad fell, it marked the loss of the last Crusader outpost on the coast of the Levant. In 1291, the C ...
).
In February 1301, the Mongols advanced again with a force of 60,000, but could do little else than engage in some raids around Syria. Ghazan's general
Kutlushah
Kutlushah, Kutlusha or Qutlughshah (, , or Cotlesse in Frank sources), was a general under the Mongol Ilkhanate ruler Ghazan at the end the 13th century. He was particularly active in the Christian country of Georgia and especially during the Mo ...
stationed 20,000 horsemen in the
Jordan Valley
The Jordan Valley ( ar, غور الأردن, ''Ghor al-Urdun''; he, עֵמֶק הַיַרְדֵּן, ''Emek HaYarden'') forms part of the larger Jordan Rift Valley. Unlike most other river valleys, the term "Jordan Valley" often applies just to ...
to protect Damascus, where a Mongol governor was stationed.
[Jean Richard, p. 481.] But again, they were soon forced to withdraw.
Plans for combined operations with the Crusaders were again made for the following winter offensive, and in late 1301, Ghazan asked Pope
Boniface VIII
Pope Boniface VIII ( la, Bonifatius PP. VIII; born Benedetto Caetani, c. 1230 – 11 October 1303) was the head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 24 December 1294 to his death in 1303. The Caetani family was of baronial ...
to send troops, priests, and peasants, in order to make the Holy Land a Frank state again.
But again, Ghazan did not appear with his own troops. He wrote again to the Pope in 1302, and his ambassadors also visited the court of
Charles II of Anjou
Charles II, also known as Charles the Lame (french: Charles le Boiteux; it, Carlo lo Zoppo; 1254 – 5 May 1309), was King of Naples, Count of Provence and Forcalquier (1285–1309), Prince of Achaea (1285–1289), and Count of Anjou and Maine ...
, who on April 27, 1303, sent
Gualterius de Lavendel as his own ambassador back to Ghazan's court.
In 1303, Ghazan sent another letter to
Edward I
Edward I (17/18 June 1239 – 7 July 1307), also known as Edward Longshanks and the Hammer of the Scots, was King of England and Lord of Ireland from 1272 to 1307. Concurrently, he ruled the duchies of Aquitaine and Gascony as a vassal ...
via
Buscarello de Ghizolfi, reiterating his great-grandfather
Hulagu Khan
Hulagu Khan, also known as Hülegü or Hulegu ( mn, Хүлэгү/ , lit=Surplus, translit=Hu’legu’/Qülegü; chg, ; Arabic: fa, هولاکو خان, ''Holâku Khân;'' ; 8 February 1265), was a Mongol ruler who conquered much of West ...
's promise that the Mongols would give Jerusalem to the Franks in exchange for help against the Mamluks. The Mongols, along with their Armenian vassals, had mustered a force of about 80,000 to repel the raiders of the
Chagatai Khanate
The Chagatai Khanate, or Chagatai Ulus ( xng, , translit=Čaɣatay-yin Ulus; mn, Цагаадайн улс, translit=Tsagaadain Uls; chg, , translit=Čağatāy Ulusi; fa, , translit=Xânât-e Joghatây) was a Mongol and later Turkicized kh ...
, which was under the leadership of
Qutlugh Khwaja. After their success there, they advanced again towards Syria. However, Ghazan's forces were utterly defeated by the Mamluks just south of Damascus at the decisive
Battle of Marj al-Saffar in April 1303.
[Demurger, p. 158.] It was to be the last major Mongol invasion of Syria.
End of reign
After military campaigns, Ghazan returned to his capital Ujan in July 1302 and made several appointments: Nirun Aqa and
Öljaitü
Öljaitü ( mn, , Öljaitü Qaghan, fa, اولجایتو), also known as Mohammad-e Khodabande ( fa, محمد خدابنده, ''khodābande'' from Persian meaning the "slave of God" or "servant of God"; 1280 – December 16, 1316), was the eigh ...
were reconfirmed in Arran and Khorasan as viceroys respectively, while
Mulay
Mulay, Mûlay, Bulay ( or Molay for the Franks, ) was a general under the Mongol Ilkhanate ruler Ghazan at the end of the 13th century. Mulay was part of the 1299–1300 Mongol offensive in Syria and Palestine, and remained with a small force to o ...
was sent to
Diyar Bakr and
Qutluqshah was assigned to Georgia. He received a concubine from
Andronikos II Palaiologos
, image = Andronikos II Palaiologos2.jpg
, caption = Miniature from the manuscript of George Pachymeres' ''Historia''
, succession = Byzantine emperor
, reign = 11 December 1282 –24 May 1328
, coronation = 8 Novembe ...
in 1302, who may be the Despina Khatun that later married to Öljaitü.
On 17 September 1303, Ghazan betrothed his daughter Öljei Qutlugh to Bistam, son of his brother
Öljaitü
Öljaitü ( mn, , Öljaitü Qaghan, fa, اولجایتو), also known as Mohammad-e Khodabande ( fa, محمد خدابنده, ''khodābande'' from Persian meaning the "slave of God" or "servant of God"; 1280 – December 16, 1316), was the eigh ...
.
According to Rashid al-Din, Ghazan became depressed after his wife Karamun's death on 21 January. He once told his amirs that "life was a prison... and is not a benefit". Later in March/April, he nominated his brother Öljaitü as his successor, as he had no son his own. Eventually, he died on 17 May 1304 near
Qazvin. He was bathed in the water of Lar
Damavand
Mount Damavand ( fa, دماوند ) is a dormant stratovolcano, the highest peak in Iran and Western Asia and the highest volcano in Asia and the 2nd highest volcano in the Eastern Hemisphere (after Mount Kilimanjaro), at an elevation of . ...
valley of
Mazandaran.
Ghazan himself appears to have dabbled in Sufism. According to the testimony of Shaykh Sadr al-Din Ibrahim Hammuiya, recorded in several Mamluk sources, Ghazan was given a woolen coat by him, indicating that perhaps the Ilkhan was initiated as a Sufi. This is not to say that Ghazan's relations with Sufis were trouble-free. In 703/1303, word came to him of a conspiracy of Sufi shaykhs and others to depose and replace him with his cousin, Ala Fireng, son of the Ilkhan Geikhatu (r. 1291–5).
Legacy
Religious policy
As part of his conversion to Islam, Ghazan changed his first name to the Islamic ''Mahmud'', and Islam gained popularity within Mongol territories. He showed tolerance for multiple religions, encouraged the original archaic Mongol culture to flourish, tolerated the
Shiites, and respected the religions of his
Georgian and
Armenian
Armenian may refer to:
* Something of, from, or related to Armenia, a country in the South Caucasus region of Eurasia
* Armenians, the national people of Armenia, or people of Armenian descent
** Armenian Diaspora, Armenian communities across the ...
vassals. Ghazan therefore continued his forefather's approach toward religious tolerance. When Ghazan learned that some Buddhist monks feigned conversion to Islam due to their temples being earlier destroyed, he granted permission to all who wished to return to
Tibet,
Kashmir or
India where they could freely follow their faith and be among other Buddhists. The Mongol
Yassa code remained in place and Mongol shamans remained politically influential throughout the reign of both Ghazan and his brother and successor
Oljeitu, but ancient Mongol traditions eventually went into decline after Oljeitu's demise. Other religious upheaval in the Ilkhanate during Ghazan's reign was instigated by Nawruz, Ghazan put a stop to these exactions by issuing an edict exempting the Christians from the ''
jizya
Jizya ( ar, جِزْيَة / ) is a per capita yearly taxation historically levied in the form of financial charge on dhimmis, that is, permanent non-Muslim subjects of a state governed by Islamic law. The jizya tax has been understood in Isl ...
'' (tax on non-Muslims), and re-established the Christian Patriarch
Mar Yaballaha III in 1296. Ghazan reportedly punished religious fanatics who destroyed churches and synagogues in Tabriz on 21 July 1298.
Reforms
Ghazan was a man of high culture, with many hobbies including linguistics, agro-techniques, painting, and chemistry. According to the
Byzantine
The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire or Byzantium, was the continuation of the Roman Empire primarily in its eastern provinces during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, when its capital city was Constantinopl ...
historian
Pachymeres
George Pachymeres ( el, Γεώργιος Παχυμέρης, Geórgios Pachyméris; 1242 – 1310) was a Byzantine Greek historian, philosopher, music theorist and miscellaneous writer.
Biography
Pachymeres was born at Nicaea, in Bithynia, wher ...
(1242–1310): "No one surpassed him, in making saddles, bridles, spurs, greaves and helmets; he could hammer, stitch and polish, and in such occupations employed the hours of his leisure from war." Ghazan spoke numerous languages, including Chinese, Arabic, and "Frank" (probably Latin), as well as his own native language Mongolian.
In addition to his religious deep impact on Persia, Ghazan had unified
measures,
coinage
Coinage may refer to:
* Coins, standardized as currency
* Neologism, coinage of a new word
* '' COINage'', numismatics magazine
* Tin coinage, a tax on refined tin
* Protologism
''Protologism'' is a term coined in 2003 by the American literary ...
and weights in the Ilkhanate. He ordered a new
census in Persia to define the Dynasty's
fiscal policy. He began to reuse wilderness, non-producing and abandoned lands to raise crops, strongly supporting the use and introduction of Eastern Asian crops in Persia, and improved the
Yam system. He constructed hostels, hospitals, schools, and posts. Envoys from the court received a per diem
stipend, and those of the nobility traveled at their own expense. Ghazan ordered only envoys bearing urgent military intelligence to use the staffed postal relay service. Mongol soldiers were given by the Ilkhanid court, where they were allowed to gather revenue provided by a piece of land. Ghazan also banned lending at interest.
Ghazan reformed the issuance of ''
jarliq
A jarlig ( mn, зарлиг, zarlig; russian: ярлык, ''jarlyk'', also transliterated yarlyk in Russian and Turkic, or even more correctly yarlıq, and the Tatar: yarlığ) is an edict or written commandant of Mongol and Chinggisid rulers' ...
s'' (edicts), creating set forms and graded seals, ordering that all jarliqs be kept on file at court. Jarliqs older than 30 years were to be cancelled, along with old
paizas (Mongol seals of authority). He fashioned new paizas into two ranks, which contained the names of the bearers on them to prevent them from being transferred. Old paizas were also to be turned in at the end of the official's term.
In fiscal policy, Ghazan introduced a unified bi-metallic currency including Ghazani dinars, and reformed purchasing procedures, replacing the traditional Mongol policy on craftsmen in the Ilkhanate, such as organizing purchases of raw materials and payment to
artisans
An artisan (from french: artisan, it, artigiano) is a skilled craft worker who makes or creates material objects partly or entirely by hand. These objects may be functional or strictly decorative, for example furniture, decorative art, s ...
. He also opted to purchase most weapons on the open market.
On coins, Ghazan omitted the name of the
Great Khan, instead inscribing his own name upon his coins in
Iran and
Anatolia. But he continued to diplomatic and economic relations with the Great Khan at Dadu.
In
Georgia
Georgia most commonly refers to:
* Georgia (country), a country in the Caucasus region of Eurasia
* Georgia (U.S. state), a state in the Southeast United States
Georgia may also refer to:
Places
Historical states and entities
* Related to the ...
, he minted coins with the traditional Mongolian formula "Struck by the Ilkhan Ghazan in the name of Khagan" because he wanted to secure his claim on the
Caucasus with the help of the Great Khans of the
Yuan Dynasty. He also continued to use the Great Khan's Chinese seal which declared him to be a wang (prince) below the Great Khan.
[Mostaert and Cleaves ''Trois documents'', p. 483.]
His reforms also extended to the military, as several new guard units, mostly Mongols, were created by Ghazan for his army center. However, he restricted new guards' political significance. Seeing Mongol commoners selling their children into slavery as damaging to both the manpower and the prestige of the Mongol army, Ghazan budgeted funds to redeem Mongol slave boys, and made his minister
Bolad
Bolad ( Mongolian: , , , d.1313), was an ethnic Mongol minister of the Yuan dynasty of China, and later served in the Ilkhanate as the representative of the Great Khan of the Mongol Empire and cultural adviser to the Ilkhans. He also provided valua ...
(the ambassador of the Great Khan Kublai) commander of a military unit of redeemed Mongol slaves.
Family
Ghazan had ten wives, 6 of them being principal wives and one being concubine:
*Yedi Kurtka Khatun — daughter of Möngke Temür Güregen (from
Suldus
The Tayichiud ( Mongolian Cyrillic: Тайчууд, Taichuud) was one of the three core tribes of the Khamag Mongol confederation on the Mongolian Plateau during the 12th century, founded by Ambaghai Khan in 1148 CE, and finally ended with Sulta ...
tribe) and Tuglughshah Khatun (daughter of
Qara Hülegü)
*Bulughan Khatun Khurasani — daughter of Amir Tasu (from
Eljigin
The Eljigin people are a Khalkha Mongolian
The Khalkha dialect ( mn, Халх аялгуу / / , ) is a dialect of central Mongolic widely spoken in Mongolia. According to some classifications, the Khalkha dialect includes Southern Mongolian ...
clan of
Khongirad
The Khongirad ( Mongolian: ᠬᠣᠩᠭᠢᠷᠠᠳ; Хонгирад; Khonghirad; ), also known as Qongirat (Qoŋğırat/Қоңғырат), was one of the major divisions of the Mongol tribes. Variations on the name include Onggirat, Ongirat, Q ...
) and Menglitegin, daughter of
Arghun Aqa
Arghun Agha, also Arghun Aqa or Arghun the Elder (; ; - 1275) was a Mongol noble of the Oirat clan in the 13th century. He was a governor in the Mongol-controlled area of Persia from 1243 to 1255, before the Ilkhanate was created by Hulagu. Ar ...
*#A stillborn son (born 1291 in
Damavand
Mount Damavand ( fa, دماوند ) is a dormant stratovolcano, the highest peak in Iran and Western Asia and the highest volcano in Asia and the 2nd highest volcano in the Eastern Hemisphere (after Mount Kilimanjaro), at an elevation of . ...
)
*
Kököchin
Kököchin, also Kökejin, Kūkājīn, Cocacin or Cozotine ( Mn: , Ch: ), was a 13th-century princess of the Mongol-led Chinese Yuan dynasty, belonging to the Mongol Bayaut tribe. In 1291, she was betrothed to the Ilkhanate khan Arghun by the Y ...
Khatun (b. 1269, m. 1293 at
Abhar
Abhar ( fa, ابهر) is a city in the Zanjan Province of Iran. It has historically served as a place of importance due to lying right between the cities of Qazvin and Zanjan.
Name
"Abhar" is a combination of the words ''āb'' (water) and '' ...
, d. 1296) — relative of
Buluqhan Khatun
Buluqhan Khatun (; ), also Bulughan, Bulukhan, Bolgana, Bulugan, Zibeline or ''Bolghara'' for Marco Polo, was a 13th-century Mongol princess, and the principal wife of the Mongol Ilkhanid ruler Abaqa (1234–1282).
Life
She belonged to th ...
*Bulughan Khatun Muazzama (m. 17 October 1295 at
Tabriz
Tabriz ( fa, تبریز ; ) is a city in northwestern Iran, serving as the capital of East Azerbaijan Province. It is the sixth-most-populous city in Iran. In the Quru River valley in Iran's historic Azerbaijan region between long ridges of vo ...
, d. 5 January 1310) — daughter of Otman Noyan (from
Khongirad
The Khongirad ( Mongolian: ᠬᠣᠩᠭᠢᠷᠠᠳ; Хонгирад; Khonghirad; ), also known as Qongirat (Qoŋğırat/Қоңғырат), was one of the major divisions of the Mongol tribes. Variations on the name include Onggirat, Ongirat, Q ...
tribe), widow of
Gaykhatu
Gaykhatu (Mongolian script:; ) was the fifth Ilkhanate ruler in Iran. He reigned from 1291 to 1295. His Buddhist baghshi gave him the Tibetan name Rinchindorj () which appeared on his paper money.
Early life
He was born to Abaqa and Nukdan K ...
and
Arghun
Arghun Khan (Mongolian Cyrillic: ''Аргун хан''; Traditional Mongolian: ; c. 1258 – 10 March 1291) was the fourth ruler of the Mongol empire's Ilkhanate, from 1284 to 1291. He was the son of Abaqa Khan, and like his father, was a dev ...
*#
Uljay Qutlugh Khatun — married firstly to Bistam, son of
Öljaitü
Öljaitü ( mn, , Öljaitü Qaghan, fa, اولجایتو), also known as Mohammad-e Khodabande ( fa, محمد خدابنده, ''khodābande'' from Persian meaning the "slave of God" or "servant of God"; 1280 – December 16, 1316), was the eigh ...
, married secondly to his brother
Abu Sa'id
*#Alju (b. 22 February 1298 in
Arran - 20 August 1300 in
Tabriz
Tabriz ( fa, تبریز ; ) is a city in northwestern Iran, serving as the capital of East Azerbaijan Province. It is the sixth-most-populous city in Iran. In the Quru River valley in Iran's historic Azerbaijan region between long ridges of vo ...
)
*Eshil Khatun (betrothed in 1293, married on 2 July 1296 at
Tabriz
Tabriz ( fa, تبریز ; ) is a city in northwestern Iran, serving as the capital of East Azerbaijan Province. It is the sixth-most-populous city in Iran. In the Quru River valley in Iran's historic Azerbaijan region between long ridges of vo ...
) — daughter of Tugh Timur Amir-Tüman (son of Noqai Yarghuchi of
Bayauts)
*Dondi Khatun (d. 9 February 1298) — daughter of Aq Buqa (from
Jalayir
Jalair ( mn, Жалайр; ; ), also Djalair, Yyalair, Jalayir, is one of the Darliqin Mongol tribes according to Rashid-al-Din Hamadani's '' Jami' al-tawarikh''. They lived along the Shilka River in modern Zabaykalsky Krai of Russia.History of ...
tribe), widow of Gaykhatu
*Karamün Khatun (m. 17 July 1299, d. 21 January 1304) — daughter of Qutlugh Temür (cousin of Bulughan Khatun Muazzama, from
Khongirad
The Khongirad ( Mongolian: ᠬᠣᠩᠭᠢᠷᠠᠳ; Хонгирад; Khonghirad; ), also known as Qongirat (Qoŋğırat/Қоңғырат), was one of the major divisions of the Mongol tribes. Variations on the name include Onggirat, Ongirat, Q ...
tribe)
*Günjishkab Khatun — daughter of Shadai Güregen (great-grandson of
Chilaun Chilaun ( mn, Чулуун) was a general in the Mongol Empire, known as one of Genghis Khan's four valiant warriors. His relatives, specifically his father Sorqan-Shira, helped young Genghis escape from captivity at the hands of the Tayichiuds. His ...
) and Orghudaq Khatun (daughter of
Jumghur
Jumghur () was the second son of Hulagu. Although according to some researchers, he may have been the eldest one.
Life
He was born to Hulagu and his Oirat wife Guyuk Khatun in 1234. He was descended from Genghis Khan on both sides: Hulagu was h ...
)
*Eirene Palaiologina, daughter of
Andronikos II (married in 1302)
*Khutulun (c. 1260 – c. 1306), also known as Aigiarne, Aiyurug, Khotol Tsagaan or Ay Yaruq (lit. 'Moonlight') was a Mongol noblewoman and wrestler, the most famous daughter of Kaidu, a cousin of Kublai Khan.
Notes
References
*Adh-Dhababi, ''Record of the Destruction of Damascus by the Mongols in 1299–1301'' Translated by Joseph Somogyi. From: Ignace Goldziher Memorial Volume, Part 1
Online(English translation).
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*Encyclopædia Iranica
*
*
Foltz, Richard, ''Religions of the Silk Road'', Palgrave Macmillan, 2nd edition, 2010
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{{Authority control
1271 births
1304 deaths
Il-Khan emperors
Mongol Empire Muslims
13th-century monarchs in Asia
14th-century monarchs in Asia
14th-century crusades
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Converts to Christianity from Buddhism