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Vaginal bleeding is any expulsion of
blood Blood is a body fluid in the circulatory system of humans and other vertebrates that delivers necessary substances such as nutrients and oxygen to the cells, and transports metabolic waste products away from those same cells. Blood in the cir ...
from the
vagina In mammals, the vagina is the elastic, muscular part of the female genital tract. In humans, it extends from the vestibule to the cervix. The outer vaginal opening is normally partly covered by a thin layer of mucosal tissue called the hymen ...
. This bleeding may originate from the
uterus The uterus (from Latin ''uterus'', plural ''uteri'') or womb () is the organ in the reproductive system of most female mammals, including humans that accommodates the embryonic and fetal development of one or more embryos until birth. The ...
, vaginal wall, or cervix. Generally, it is either part of a normal menstrual cycle or is caused by
hormonal A hormone (from the Greek participle , "setting in motion") is a class of signaling molecules in multicellular organisms that are sent to distant organs by complex biological processes to regulate physiology and behavior. Hormones are required f ...
or other problems of the reproductive system, such as
abnormal uterine bleeding Abnormal uterine bleeding (AUB), also known as (AVB) or as atypical vaginal bleeding, is vaginal bleeding from the uterus that is abnormally frequent, lasts excessively long, is heavier than normal, or is irregular. The term dysfunctional uterin ...
. Vaginal bleeding during pregnancy can be normal, especially in early pregnancy. However, bleeding may also indicate a
pregnancy complication Complications of pregnancy are health problems that are related to pregnancy. Complications that occur primarily during childbirth are termed obstetric labor complications, and problems that occur primarily after childbirth are termed puerperal d ...
that needs to be medically addressed. During pregnancy bleeding is usually, but not always, related to the pregnancy itself. Regular monthly vaginal bleeding during the reproductive years, menstruation, is a normal physiologic process. During the reproductive years, bleeding that is excessively heavy ( menorrhagia or
heavy menstrual bleeding Heavy menstrual bleeding (HMB), previously known as menorrhagia or hypermenorrhea, is a menstrual period with excessively heavy flow. It is a type of abnormal uterine bleeding (AUB). Abnormal uterine bleeding can be caused by structural abnorma ...
), occurs between monthly menstrual periods (
intermenstrual bleeding Intermenstrual bleeding, previously known as metrorrhagia, is uterine bleeding at irregular intervals, particularly between the expected menstrual periods. It is a cause of vaginal bleeding. In some women, menstrual spotting between periods occ ...
), occurs more frequently than every 21 days (
abnormal uterine bleeding Abnormal uterine bleeding (AUB), also known as (AVB) or as atypical vaginal bleeding, is vaginal bleeding from the uterus that is abnormally frequent, lasts excessively long, is heavier than normal, or is irregular. The term dysfunctional uterin ...
), occurs too infrequently (
oligomenorrhea Oligomenorrhea is infrequent (or, in occasional usage, very light) menstruation. More strictly, it is menstrual periods occurring at intervals of greater than 35 days, with only four to nine periods in a year.thefreedictionary.com > oligomenorrhea ...
), or occurs after vaginal intercourse (
postcoital bleeding Postcoital bleeding is bleeding from the vagina after sexual intercourse and may or may not be associated with pain. The bleeding can be from the uterus, cervix, vagina and other tissue or organs located near the vagina. Postcoital bleeding can be ...
) should be evaluated. The causes of abnormal vaginal bleeding vary by age, and such bleeding can be a sign of specific medical conditions ranging from hormone imbalances or
anovulation Anovulation is when the ovaries do not release an oocyte during a menstrual cycle. Therefore, ovulation does not take place. However, a woman who does not ovulate at each menstrual cycle is not necessarily going through menopause. Chronic anovula ...
to malignancy ( cervical cancer,
vaginal cancer Vaginal cancer is an extraordinarily rare form of cancer that develops in the tissue of the vagina. Primary vaginal cancer originates from the vaginal tissue – most frequently squamous cell carcinoma, but primary vaginal adenocarcinoma, sarcoma, ...
or
uterine cancer Uterine cancer, also known as womb cancer, includes two types of cancer that develop from the tissues of the uterus. Endometrial cancer forms from the lining of the uterus, and uterine sarcoma forms from the muscles or support tissue of the ut ...
). In young children, or elderly adults with cognitive impairment, the source of bleeding may not be obvious, and may be from the
urinary tract The urinary system, also known as the urinary tract or renal system, consists of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and the urethra. The purpose of the urinary system is to eliminate waste from the body, regulate blood volume and blood pressure, c ...
(
hematuria Hematuria or haematuria is defined as the presence of blood or red blood cells in the urine. “Gross hematuria” occurs when urine appears red, brown, or tea-colored due to the presence of blood. Hematuria may also be subtle and only detectable w ...
) or the rectum rather than the vagina, although most adult women can identify the site of bleeding. When vaginal bleeding occurs in prepubertal children or in
postmenopausal Menopause, also known as the climacteric, is the time in women's lives when menstrual periods stop permanently, and they are no longer able to bear children. Menopause usually occurs between the age of 47 and 54. Medical professionals often d ...
women, it always needs medical attention.


Differential diagnosis

The parameters for normal menstruation have been defined as a result of an international process designed to simplify terminologies and definitions for abnormalities of menstrual bleeding. The causes of abnormal vaginal bleeding vary by age.


In children

Bleeding in children is of concern if it occurs before the expected time of menarche and in the absence of appropriate pubertal development. Bleeding before the onset of pubertal development deserves evaluation. It could result from local causes or from hormonal factors. In children, it may be challenging to determine the source of bleeding, and "vaginal" bleeding may actually arise from the bladder or urethra, or from the rectum. Vaginal bleeding in the first week of life after birth is a common observation, and pediatricians typically discuss this with new mothers at the time of hospital discharge. During childhood, other possible causes include the presence of a foreign body in the vagina, trauma (either accidental or non accidental, i.e.
child sexual abuse Child sexual abuse (CSA), also called child molestation, is a form of child abuse in which an adult or older adolescent uses a child for sexual stimulation. Forms of child sexual abuse include engaging in sexual activities with a child (whet ...
or
molestation Sexual abuse or sex abuse, also referred to as molestation, is abusive sexual behavior by one person upon another. It is often perpetrated using force or by taking advantage of another. Molestation often refers to an instance of sexual assau ...
), urethral prolapse, vaginal infection (
vaginitis Vaginitis, also known as vulvovaginitis, is inflammation of the vagina and vulva. Symptoms may include itching, burning, pain, discharge, and a bad smell. Certain types of vaginitis may result in complications during pregnancy. The three main ...
), vulvar ulcers, vulvar skin conditions such as
lichen sclerosus Lichen sclerosus (LS) is a chronic, inflammatory skin disease of unknown cause which can affect any body part of any person but has a strong preference for the genitals (penis, vulva) and is also known as balanitis xerotica obliterans (BXO) when ...
, and rarely, a tumor (benign or malignant vaginal tumors, or hormone-producing ovarian tumors). Hormonal causes include central
precocious puberty In medicine, precocious puberty is puberty occurring at an unusually early age. In most cases, the process is normal in every aspect except the unusually early age and simply represents a variation of normal development. In a minority of childr ...
, or peripheral precocious puberty (
McCune–Albright syndrome McCune–Albright syndrome is a complex genetic disorder affecting the bone, skin and endocrine systems. It is a mosaic disease arising from somatic activating mutations in '' GNAS'', which encodes the alpha-subunit of the Gs heterotrimeric G ...
), or primary hypothyroidism. While the symptom is typically alarming to parents, most causes are benign, although sexual abuse or tumor are particularly important to exclude. An examination under anesthesia (EUA) may be necessary to exclude a vaginal foreign body or tumor, although instruments designed for office
hysteroscopy Hysteroscopy is the inspection of the uterine cavity by endoscopy with access through the cervix. It allows for the diagnosis of intrauterine pathology and serves as a method for surgical intervention (operative hysteroscopy). Hysteroscope A hyst ...
can sometimes be used in children with topical anesthesia for office vaginoscopy, precluding the need for sedation or general anesthesia and operating room time.


Premenopausal


Background

In premenopausal women, bleeding can be from the uterus, from vulvar or vaginal lesions, or from the cervix. A gynecologic examination can be performed to determine the source of bleeding. Bleeding may also occur as a result of a pregnancy complication, such as a spontaneous abortion ( miscarriage), ectopic pregnancy, or abnormal growth of the placenta, even if the woman is not aware of the pregnancy. This possibility must be kept in mind with regard to diagnosis and management. Generally, the causes of abnormal uterine bleeding in premenopausal women who are not pregnant include fibroids,
polyps A polyp in zoology is one of two forms found in the phylum Cnidaria, the other being the medusa. Polyps are roughly cylindrical in shape and elongated at the axis of the vase-shaped body. In solitary polyps, the aboral (opposite to oral) end i ...
, hormonal disorders such as
polycystic ovary syndrome Polycystic ovary syndrome, or PCOS, is the most common endocrine disorder in women of reproductive age. The syndrome is named after the characteristic cysts which may form on the ovaries, though it is important to note that this is a sign and no ...
(PCOS), blood clotting disorders, and cancer. Infections such as
cervicitis Cervicitis is inflammation of the uterine cervix. Cervicitis in women has many features in common with urethritis in men and many cases are caused by sexually transmitted infections. Non-infectious causes of cervicitis can include intrauterine ...
or pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) can also result in vaginal bleeding.
Postcoital bleeding Postcoital bleeding is bleeding from the vagina after sexual intercourse and may or may not be associated with pain. The bleeding can be from the uterus, cervix, vagina and other tissue or organs located near the vagina. Postcoital bleeding can be ...
is bleeding that occurs after sexual intercourse. Lastly, a normal and common side effect of birth control includes vaginal spotting or bleeding.


Clinical guidelines (FIGO classification)

A more specific clinical guideline, called the PALM-COEIN system, has been developed by FIGO (International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics) to classify the causes of abnormal uterine bleeding. This acronym stands for ''P''olyp, ''A''denomyosis, ''L''eiomyoma, ''M''alignancy and Hyperplasia, ''C''oagulopathy, ''O''vulatory Disorders, ''E''ndometrial Disorders, ''I''atrogenic Causes, and ''N''ot Classified. The FIGO Menstrual Disorders Group, with input from international experts, recommended a simplified description of abnormal bleeding that discarded imprecise terms such as menorrhagia,
metrorrhagia Intermenstrual bleeding, previously known as metrorrhagia, is uterine bleeding at irregular intervals, particularly between the expected menstrual periods. It is a cause of vaginal bleeding. In some women, menstrual spotting between periods occu ...
,
hypermenorrhea Heavy menstrual bleeding (HMB), previously known as menorrhagia or hypermenorrhea, is a menstrual period with excessively heavy flow. It is a type of abnormal uterine bleeding (AUB). Abnormal uterine bleeding can be caused by structural abnorm ...
, and
dysfunctional uterine bleeding Abnormal uterine bleeding (AUB), also known as (AVB) or as atypical vaginal bleeding, is vaginal bleeding from the uterus that is abnormally frequent, lasts excessively long, is heavier than normal, or is irregular. The term dysfunctional uterin ...
(DUB) in favor of plain English descriptions of bleeding that describe the vaginal bleeding in terms of cycle regularity, frequency, duration, and volume. The PALM causes are related to uterine structural, anatomic, and histolopathologic causes that can be assessed with imaging techniques such as ultrasound or biopsy to view the histology of a lesion. The COEIN causes of abnormal bleeding are not related to structural causes. * Polyps:
Endometrial polyp An endometrial polyp or uterine polyp is a mass in the inner lining of the uterus. They may have a large flat base ( sessile) or be attached to the uterus by an elongated pedicle ( pedunculated). Pedunculated polyps are more common than sessile ...
s are benign growths that are typically detected during gynecologic
ultrasonography Ultrasound is sound waves with frequencies higher than the upper audible limit of human hearing. Ultrasound is not different from "normal" (audible) sound in its physical properties, except that humans cannot hear it. This limit varies fr ...
and confirmed using saline infusion sonography or
hysteroscopy Hysteroscopy is the inspection of the uterine cavity by endoscopy with access through the cervix. It allows for the diagnosis of intrauterine pathology and serves as a method for surgical intervention (operative hysteroscopy). Hysteroscope A hyst ...
, often in combination with an
endometrial biopsy The endometrial biopsy is a medical procedure that involves taking a tissue sample of the lining of the uterus. The tissue subsequently undergoes a histologic evaluation which aids the physician in forming a diagnosis. Medical uses There are a ...
providing
histopathologic Histopathology (compound of three Greek words: ''histos'' "tissue", πάθος ''pathos'' "suffering", and -λογία ''-logia'' "study of") refers to the microscopic examination of tissue in order to study the manifestations of disease. Spec ...
confirmation. Endocervical polyps are visible at the time of a gynecologic examination using a
vaginal speculum A speculum (Latin for 'mirror'; plural specula or speculums) is a medical tool for investigating body orifices, with a form dependent on the orifice for which it is designed. In old texts, the speculum may also be referred to as a diopter or dio ...
, and can often be removed with a minor office procedure. * Adenomyosis: Adenomyosis is a condition in which endometrial glands are present within the muscle of the uterus (myometrium), and the pathogenesis and mechanism by which it causes abnormal bleeding have been debated. * Leiomyoma (fibroids):
Uterine leiomyoma Uterine fibroids, also known as uterine leiomyomas or fibroids, are benign smooth muscle tumors of the uterus. Most women with fibroids have no symptoms while others may have painful or heavy periods. If large enough, they may push on the bl ...
, commonly termed uterine fibroids, are common, and most fibroids are asymptomatic. The presence of leiomyomas may not be the cause of abnormal bleeding, although fibroids that are submucosal in location are the most likely to cause abnormal bleeding. * Malignancy (pre-cancer and cancer): The Malignancy and Hyperplasia category of the PALM-COEIN system includes malignancies of the genital tract, including cancers of the
vulva The vulva (plural: vulvas or vulvae; derived from Latin for wrapper or covering) consists of the external female sex organs. The vulva includes the mons pubis (or mons veneris), labia majora, labia minora, clitoris, vestibular bulbs, vulv ...
, the
vagina In mammals, the vagina is the elastic, muscular part of the female genital tract. In humans, it extends from the vestibule to the cervix. The outer vaginal opening is normally partly covered by a thin layer of mucosal tissue called the hymen ...
, the cervix, and the
uterus The uterus (from Latin ''uterus'', plural ''uteri'') or womb () is the organ in the reproductive system of most female mammals, including humans that accommodates the embryonic and fetal development of one or more embryos until birth. The ...
.
Endometrial hyperplasia Endometrial hyperplasia is a condition of excessive proliferation of the cells of the endometrium, or inner lining of the uterus. Most cases of endometrial hyperplasia result from high levels of estrogens, combined with insufficient levels of t ...
, included in this PALM category of abnormal bleeding, is more common in women who are obese or who have a history of chronic
anovulation Anovulation is when the ovaries do not release an oocyte during a menstrual cycle. Therefore, ovulation does not take place. However, a woman who does not ovulate at each menstrual cycle is not necessarily going through menopause. Chronic anovula ...
. When endometrial hyperplasia is associated with atypical cells, it can progress to cancer or occur concurrently with it. While endometrial hyperplasia and endometrial cancer occur most commonly among
post-menopausal Menopause, also known as the climacteric, is the time in women's lives when menstrual periods stop permanently, and they are no longer able to bear children. Menopause usually occurs between the age of 47 and 54. Medical professionals often ...
women, most patients with endometrial cancer have abnormal bleeding, and thus the diagnosis must be considered in women during the reproductive years. * Coagulopathies (blood clotting disorders):
Heavy menstrual bleeding Heavy menstrual bleeding (HMB), previously known as menorrhagia or hypermenorrhea, is a menstrual period with excessively heavy flow. It is a type of abnormal uterine bleeding (AUB). Abnormal uterine bleeding can be caused by structural abnorma ...
can be related to coagulopathies.
Von Willebrand disease Von Willebrand disease (VWD) is the most common hereditary blood-clotting disorder in humans. An acquired form can sometimes result from other medical conditions. It arises from a deficiency in the quality or quantity of von Willebrand factor ...
is the most common coagulopathy, and most women with von Willebrand disease have heavy menstrual bleeding. Of women with heavy menstrual bleeding, up to 20% will have a bleeding disorder. Heavy menstrual bleeding since menarche is a common symptom for women with bleeding disorders, and in retrospective studies, bleeding disorders have been found in up to 62% of adolescents with heavy menstrual bleeding. * Ovulatory dysfunction: ''O''vulatory dysfunction or
anovulation Anovulation is when the ovaries do not release an oocyte during a menstrual cycle. Therefore, ovulation does not take place. However, a woman who does not ovulate at each menstrual cycle is not necessarily going through menopause. Chronic anovula ...
is a common cause of abnormal bleeding that may lead to irregular and unpredictable bleeding, as well as variations in the amount of flow including heavy bleeding. Endocrine, or hormonal, causes of ovulatory disorders include
polycystic ovary syndrome Polycystic ovary syndrome, or PCOS, is the most common endocrine disorder in women of reproductive age. The syndrome is named after the characteristic cysts which may form on the ovaries, though it is important to note that this is a sign and no ...
(PCOS), thyroid disorders,
hyperprolactinemia Hyperprolactinaemia is the presence of abnormally high levels of prolactin in the blood. Normal levels average to about 13 ng/mL in women, and 5 ng/mL in men, with an upper normal limit of serum prolactin levels being 15-25 ng/mL ...
, obesity, eating disorders including
anorexia nervosa Anorexia nervosa, often referred to simply as anorexia, is an eating disorder characterized by low weight, food restriction, body image disturbance, fear of gaining weight, and an overpowering desire to be thin. ''Anorexia'' is a term of Gr ...
or
bulimia Bulimia nervosa, also known as simply bulimia, is an eating disorder characterized by binge eating followed by purging or fasting, and excessive concern with body shape and weight. The aim of this activity is to expel the body of calories eaten ...
, or to an imbalance between exercise and caloric intake. * Endometrial: ''E''ndometrial causes of abnormal bleeding include infection of the endometrium,
endometritis Endometritis is inflammation of the inner lining of the uterus ( endometrium). Symptoms may include fever, lower abdominal pain, and abnormal vaginal bleeding or discharge. It is the most common cause of infection after childbirth. It is also p ...
, which may occur after a miscarriage (spontaneous abortion) or a delivery, or may be related to a sexually-transmitted infection of the
uterus The uterus (from Latin ''uterus'', plural ''uteri'') or womb () is the organ in the reproductive system of most female mammals, including humans that accommodates the embryonic and fetal development of one or more embryos until birth. The ...
, fallopian tubes or pelvis generally termed pelvic inflammatory disease (PID). Other endometrial causes of abnormal bleeding may relate to the ways that the endometrium heals itself or develops blood vessels. * Iatrogenic (caused by medical treatment or procedures): The most common ''I''atrogenic cause of abnormal bleeding relates to treatment with hormonal medications such as birth control pills, patches, rings, injections, implants, and intrauterine devices (IUDs). Hormone therapy for treatment of menopausal symptoms can also cause abnormal bleeding. Unscheduled bleeding that occurs during such hormonal treatment is termed "
breakthrough bleeding Intermenstrual bleeding, previously known as metrorrhagia, is uterine bleeding at irregular intervals, particularly between the expected menstrual periods. It is a cause of vaginal bleeding. In some women, menstrual spotting between periods occ ...
" (BTB) Breakthrough bleeding may result from inconsistent use of hormonal treatment, although in the initial months after initiation of a method, it may occur even with perfect use, and may ultimately affect adherence to the medication regimen. The risk of breakthrough bleeding with oral contraceptives is greater if pills are missed. * Not classified: The Not Classified category of the PALM-COEIN system includes conditions that may be rare, or whose contribution to abnormal bleeding has not been well established or understood.


Pregnancy

Vaginal bleeding occurs during 15–25% of first trimester
pregnancies Pregnancy is the time during which one or more offspring develops ( gestates) inside a woman's uterus (womb). A multiple pregnancy involves more than one offspring, such as with twins. Pregnancy usually occurs by sexual intercourse, but can ...
. Of these, half go on to miscarry and half bring the fetus to term. There are a number of causes including complications to the
placenta The placenta is a temporary embryonic and later fetal organ that begins developing from the blastocyst shortly after implantation. It plays critical roles in facilitating nutrient, gas and waste exchange between the physically separate mate ...
, such as
placental abruption Placental abruption is when the placenta separates early from the uterus, in other words separates before childbirth. It occurs most commonly around 25 Gestational age (obstetrics), weeks of pregnancy. Symptoms may include vaginal bleeding, lower ...
and
placenta previa Placenta praevia is when the placenta attaches inside the uterus but in a position near or over the cervical opening. Symptoms include vaginal bleeding in the second half of pregnancy. The bleeding is bright red and tends not to be associated wi ...
. Other causes include miscarriage, ectopic pregnancy, molar pregnancy, incompetent cervix,
uterine rupture Uterine rupture is when the muscular wall of the uterus tears during pregnancy or childbirth. Symptoms, while classically including increased pain, vaginal bleeding, or a change in contractions, are not always present. Disability or death of the ...
, and
preterm labor Preterm birth, also known as premature birth, is the birth of a baby at fewer than 37 weeks gestational age, as opposed to full-term delivery at approximately 40 weeks. Extreme preterm is less than 28 weeks, very early preterm birth is between ...
. Bleeding in early pregnancy may be a sign of a
threatened Threatened species are any species (including animals, plants and fungi) which are vulnerable to endangerment in the near future. Species that are threatened are sometimes characterised by the population dynamics measure of ''critical depensa ...
or incomplete miscarriage. In the second or third trimester a placenta previa (a placenta partially or completely overlying the cervix) may bleed quite severely.
Placental abruption Placental abruption is when the placenta separates early from the uterus, in other words separates before childbirth. It occurs most commonly around 25 Gestational age (obstetrics), weeks of pregnancy. Symptoms may include vaginal bleeding, lower ...
is often associated with uterine bleeding as well as uterine pain.


Postmenopausal

Endometrial atrophy, uterine fibroids, and endometrial cancer are common causes of postmenopausal vaginal bleeding. About 10% of cases are due to endometrial cancer. Uterine fibroids are benign tumors made of muscle cells and other tissues located in and around the wall of the
uterus The uterus (from Latin ''uterus'', plural ''uteri'') or womb () is the organ in the reproductive system of most female mammals, including humans that accommodates the embryonic and fetal development of one or more embryos until birth. The ...
. Women with fibroids do not always have symptoms, but some experience vaginal bleeding between periods, pain during sex, and lower back pain.


Diagnostic evaluation

The cause of the bleeding can often be discerned on the basis of the bleeding history, physical examination, and other medical tests as appropriate. The physical examination for evaluating vaginal bleeding typically includes visualization of the cervix with a speculum, a
bimanual exam A pelvic examination is the physical examination of the external and internal female pelvic organs. It is frequently used in gynecology for the evaluation of symptoms affecting the female reproductive and urinary tract, such as pain, bleeding, d ...
, and a rectovaginal exam. These are focused on finding the source of the bleeding and looking for any abnormalities that could cause bleeding. In addition, the abdomen is examined and palpated to ascertain if the bleeding is abdominal in origin. Typically a
pregnancy test A pregnancy test is used to determine whether a female is pregnant or not. The two primary methods are testing for the female pregnancy hormone (human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)) in blood or urine using a pregnancy test kit, and scanning with ...
is performed as well. If bleeding was excessive or prolonged, a CBC may be useful to check for
anemia Anemia or anaemia (British English) is a blood disorder in which the blood has a reduced ability to carry oxygen due to a lower than normal number of red blood cells, or a reduction in the amount of hemoglobin. When anemia comes on slowly, t ...
. Abnormal endometrium may have to be investigated by a
hysteroscopy Hysteroscopy is the inspection of the uterine cavity by endoscopy with access through the cervix. It allows for the diagnosis of intrauterine pathology and serves as a method for surgical intervention (operative hysteroscopy). Hysteroscope A hyst ...
with a
biopsy A biopsy is a medical test commonly performed by a surgeon, interventional radiologist, or an interventional cardiologist. The process involves extraction of sample cells or tissues for examination to determine the presence or extent of a dise ...
or a
dilation and curettage Dilation (or dilatation) and curettage (D&C) refers to the dilation (widening/opening) of the cervix and surgical removal of part of the lining of the uterus and/or contents of the uterus by scraping and scooping (curettage). It is a gynecolog ...
.


Postmenopausal bleeding

In postmenopausal vaginal bleeding, the primary goal of any diagnostic evaluations is to exclude endometrial hyperplasia and malignancy.
Transvaginal ultrasonography Vaginal ultrasonography is a medical ultrasonography that applies an ultrasound transducer (or "probe") in the vagina to visualize organs within the pelvic cavity. It is also called transvaginal ultrasonography because the ultrasound waves go '' ...
and endometrial sampling are common methods for an initial evaluation. Guidelines from the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) recommend
transvaginal ultrasonography Vaginal ultrasonography is a medical ultrasonography that applies an ultrasound transducer (or "probe") in the vagina to visualize organs within the pelvic cavity. It is also called transvaginal ultrasonography because the ultrasound waves go '' ...
as an appropriate first-line procedure to identify which patients are at higher risk of endometrial cancer. Endometrial sampling is indicated if having the following findings and/or symptoms: * Endometrial thickness greater than 4 mm * Diffuse or focal increased echogenicity (heterogeneity) * Failure to visualize the endometrium * Persistent or recurrent bleeding regardless of endometrial thickness Endometrial sampling can be obtained either by an
endometrial biopsy The endometrial biopsy is a medical procedure that involves taking a tissue sample of the lining of the uterus. The tissue subsequently undergoes a histologic evaluation which aids the physician in forming a diagnosis. Medical uses There are a ...
using an endometrium sampling device such as a pipelle or by
dilation and curettage Dilation (or dilatation) and curettage (D&C) refers to the dilation (widening/opening) of the cervix and surgical removal of part of the lining of the uterus and/or contents of the uterus by scraping and scooping (curettage). It is a gynecolog ...
(D&C) with or without a
hysteroscopy Hysteroscopy is the inspection of the uterine cavity by endoscopy with access through the cervix. It allows for the diagnosis of intrauterine pathology and serves as a method for surgical intervention (operative hysteroscopy). Hysteroscope A hyst ...
.


FIGO classification

In 2011, the
International Federation of Gynaecology and Obstetrics The International Federation of Gynaecology and Obstetrics, usually just FIGO ("fee'go") as the acronym of its French name Fédération Internationale de Gynécologie et d'Obstétrique, is a worldwide non-governmental organisation representing ...
(FIGO) recognized two systems designed to aid research, education, and clinical care of women with abnormal uterine bleeding (AUB) in the reproductive years.


Complications

Severe acute bleeding, such as caused by ectopic pregnancy and post-partum hemorrhage, leads to hypovolemia (the depletion of blood from the circulation), progressing to
shock Shock may refer to: Common uses Collective noun *Shock, a historic commercial term for a group of 60, see English numerals#Special names * Stook, or shock of grain, stacked sheaves Healthcare * Shock (circulatory), circulatory medical emergen ...
. This is a
medical emergency A medical emergency is an acute injury or illness that poses an immediate risk to a person's life or long-term health, sometimes referred to as a situation risking "life or limb". These emergencies may require assistance from another, qualified ...
and requires hospital attendance and intravenous fluids, usually followed by
blood transfusion Blood transfusion is the process of transferring blood products into a person's circulation intravenously. Transfusions are used for various medical conditions to replace lost components of the blood. Early transfusions used whole blood, but mo ...
. Once the circulating volume has been restored, investigations are performed to identify the source of bleeding and address it. Uncontrolled life-threatening bleeding may require
uterine artery embolization Uterine artery embolization is a procedure in which an interventional radiologist uses a catheter to deliver small particles that block the blood supply to the uterine body. The procedure is done for the treatment of uterine fibroids and adenomyos ...
(occlusion of the blood vessels supplying the uterus),
laparotomy A laparotomy is a surgical procedure involving a surgical incision through the abdominal wall to gain access into the abdominal cavity. It is also known as a celiotomy. Origins and history The first successful laparotomy was performed without ane ...
(surgical opening of the abdomen), occasionally leading to hysterectomy (removal of the uterus) as a last resort. A possible complication from protracted vaginal blood loss is
iron deficiency anemia Iron-deficiency anemia is anemia caused by a lack of iron. Anemia is defined as a decrease in the number of red blood cells or the amount of hemoglobin in the blood. When onset is slow, symptoms are often vague such as feeling tired, weak, s ...
, which can develop insidiously. Eliminating the cause will resolve the anemia, although some women require
iron Iron () is a chemical element with Symbol (chemistry), symbol Fe (from la, Wikt:ferrum, ferrum) and atomic number 26. It is a metal that belongs to the first transition series and group 8 element, group 8 of the periodic table. It is, Abundanc ...
supplements or
blood transfusion Blood transfusion is the process of transferring blood products into a person's circulation intravenously. Transfusions are used for various medical conditions to replace lost components of the blood. Early transfusions used whole blood, but mo ...
s to improve the anemia.


Epidemiology


Prepubertal

The most common cause of vaginal bleeding is usually considered to be a foreign body inserted into the vaginal canal, which is frequently associated with pelvic pain, foul discharge, or recurrent genitourinary infections. This event can be due to normal self-exploration or can be indicative of sexual abuse. Genitourinary injury is also a common cause, and is often the most common cause of hospitalization or emergency department visits for prepubertal vaginal bleeding, comprising up to 45% of such cases. The most common genitourinary injury is the straddle injury, which often occurs during a fall, often on a sharp edge, and can cause lacerations between the labial folds.


Treatment

While many forms of vaginal bleeding are normal and do not require treatment, other forms will require medical attention. Hormonal management is usually the first option used to treat acute abnormal uterine bleeding. These hormonal medications include birth control pills, medroxyprogesterone acetate (brand name
Depo-Provera Medroxyprogesterone acetate (MPA), also known as depot medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA) in injectable form and sold under the brand name Depo-Provera among others, is a hormonal medication of the progestin type. It is used as a method of bi ...
), and conjugated equine estrogen. Long-term treatments include
hormonal IUD A hormonal intrauterine device (IUD), also known as a intrauterine system (IUS) with progestogen and sold under the brand name Mirena among others, is an intrauterine device that releases a progestogenic hormonal agent such as levonorgestrel ...
insertion, birth control pills, progestin pills or progestin shots (
Depo-Provera Medroxyprogesterone acetate (MPA), also known as depot medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA) in injectable form and sold under the brand name Depo-Provera among others, is a hormonal medication of the progestin type. It is used as a method of bi ...
), and NSAIDs such as ibuprofen Certain medications may not be safe for certain women. Women with blood clotting disorders may also need to see a hematologist. Surgical treatments may also be considered if the bleeding is severe or if there are reasons patients cannot take the hormonal medications listed above. These options include
dilation & curettage Dilation (or dilatation) and curettage (D&C) refers to the dilation (widening/opening) of the cervix and surgical removal of part of the lining of the uterus and/or contents of the uterus by scraping and scooping (curettage). It is a gynecologic ...
,
endometrial ablation Endometrial ablation is a surgical procedure that is used to remove (ablation, ablate) or destroy the endometrial lining of the uterus in people who have heavy menstrual bleeding. Endometrial ablation is not recommended for people who wish to hav ...
, and hysterectomy (removal of the uterus). Hysterectomy will result in infertility, so surgical decisions will include women's preferences regarding future fertility when possible.


See also

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Istihadha In Islam, the Istihadha ( ar, اِسْتِحَاضَةٌ ; ''flowing blood'') represents a disturbance of the menstrual cycle of the woman which makes it difficult for her to perform some religious rituals ('' ibadah''). Presentation The woma ...
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Abnormal uterine bleeding Abnormal uterine bleeding (AUB), also known as (AVB) or as atypical vaginal bleeding, is vaginal bleeding from the uterus that is abnormally frequent, lasts excessively long, is heavier than normal, or is irregular. The term dysfunctional uterin ...
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Implantation bleeding Implantation (nidation) is the stage in the embryonic development of mammals in which the blastocyst hatches as the embryo, adheres, and invades into the wall of the female's uterus. Implantation is the first stage of gestation, and when suc ...


References


External links

{{Diseases of the pelvis and genitals Noninflammatory disorders of female genital tract