Groundwater models are
computer models
Computer simulation is the process of mathematical modelling, performed on a computer, which is designed to predict the behaviour of, or the outcome of, a real-world or physical system. The reliability of some mathematical models can be deter ...
of
groundwater
Groundwater is the water present beneath Earth's surface in rock and soil pore spaces and in the fractures of rock formations. About 30 percent of all readily available freshwater in the world is groundwater. A unit of rock or an unconsolidated ...
flow systems, and are used by
hydrologist
Hydrology () is the scientific study of the movement, distribution, and management of water on Earth and other planets, including the water cycle, water resources, and environmental watershed sustainability. A practitioner of hydrology is calle ...
s and
hydrogeologist
Hydrogeology (''hydro-'' meaning water, and ''-geology'' meaning the study of the Earth) is the area of geology that deals with the distribution and movement of groundwater in the soil and rocks of the Earth's crust (commonly in aqui ...
s. Groundwater models are used to simulate and predict
aquifer
An aquifer is an underground layer of water-bearing, permeable rock, rock fractures, or unconsolidated materials ( gravel, sand, or silt). Groundwater from aquifers can be extracted using a water well. Aquifers vary greatly in their characteris ...
conditions.
Characteristics
![Aquifer en](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/Aquifer_en.svg)
An unambiguous definition of "groundwater model" is difficult to give, but there are many common characteristics.
A
groundwater
Groundwater is the water present beneath Earth's surface in rock and soil pore spaces and in the fractures of rock formations. About 30 percent of all readily available freshwater in the world is groundwater. A unit of rock or an unconsolidated ...
model may be a
scale model or an electric model of a groundwater situation or
aquifer
An aquifer is an underground layer of water-bearing, permeable rock, rock fractures, or unconsolidated materials ( gravel, sand, or silt). Groundwater from aquifers can be extracted using a water well. Aquifers vary greatly in their characteris ...
. Groundwater models are used to represent the natural groundwater flow in the environment. Some groundwater models include (chemical) quality aspects of the groundwater. Such groundwater models try to predict the fate and movement of the chemical in natural, urban or hypothetical scenario.
Groundwater models may be used to predict the effects of hydrological changes (like groundwater pumping or irrigation developments) on the behavior of the aquifer and are often named groundwater simulation models. Groundwater models are used in various water management plans for urban areas.
As the computations in
mathematical
Mathematics is an area of knowledge that includes the topics of numbers, formulas and related structures, shapes and the spaces in which they are contained, and quantities and their changes. These topics are represented in modern mathematics ...
groundwater models are based on
groundwater flow equation Used in hydrogeology, the groundwater flow equation is the mathematical relationship which is used to describe the flow of groundwater through an aquifer. The transient flow of groundwater is described by a form of the diffusion equation, similar ...
s, which are
differential equations that can often be solved only by
approximate methods using a
numerical analysis
Numerical analysis is the study of algorithms that use numerical approximation (as opposed to symbolic manipulations) for the problems of mathematical analysis (as distinguished from discrete mathematics). It is the study of numerical methods ...
, these models are also called ''mathematical, numerical, or computational groundwater models''.
The mathematical or the numerical models are usually based on the real physics the groundwater flow follows. These mathematical equations are solved using numerical codes such as
MODFLOW
MODFLOW is the U.S. Geological Survey modular finite-difference flow model, which is a computer code that solves the groundwater flow equation. The program is used by hydrogeologists to simulate the flow of groundwater through aquifers. The so ...
, ParFlow,
HydroGeoSphereOpenGeoSysetc.
Various types of ''numerical solutions'' like the
finite difference method
In numerical analysis, finite-difference methods (FDM) are a class of numerical techniques for solving differential equations by approximating derivatives with finite differences. Both the spatial domain and time interval (if applicable) are ...
and the
finite element method
The finite element method (FEM) is a popular method for numerically solving differential equations arising in engineering and mathematical modeling. Typical problem areas of interest include the traditional fields of structural analysis, heat ...
are discussed in the article on "
Hydrogeology
Hydrogeology (''hydro-'' meaning water, and ''-geology'' meaning the study of the Earth) is the area of geology that deals with the distribution and movement of groundwater in the soil and rocks of the Earth's crust (commonly in aqui ...
".
Inputs
For the calculations one needs inputs like:
*hydrological inputs,
*operational inputs,
*external conditions:
initial
In a written or published work, an initial capital, also referred to as a drop capital or simply an initial cap, initial, initcapital, initcap or init or a drop cap or drop, is a letter at the beginning of a word, a chapter, or a paragraph that ...
and
boundary
Boundary or Boundaries may refer to:
* Border, in political geography
Entertainment
* ''Boundaries'' (2016 film), a 2016 Canadian film
* ''Boundaries'' (2018 film), a 2018 American-Canadian road trip film
*Boundary (cricket), the edge of the pla ...
conditions,
*(hydraulic)
parameters
A parameter (), generally, is any characteristic that can help in defining or classifying a particular system (meaning an event, project, object, situation, etc.). That is, a parameter is an element of a system that is useful, or critical, when ...
.
The model may have chemical components like
water salinity
Salinity () is the saltiness or amount of salt dissolved in a body of water, called saline water (see also soil salinity). It is usually measured in g/L or g/kg (grams of salt per liter/kilogram of water; the latter is dimensionless and equal ...
,
soil salinity and other quality indicators of water and soil, for which inputs may also be needed.
Hydrological inputs
![Surface water cycle](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/80/Surface_water_cycle.svg)
The primary coupling between groundwater and hydrological inputs is the
unsaturated zone
The vadose zone, also termed the unsaturated zone, is the part of Earth between the land surface and the top of the phreatic zone, the position at which the groundwater (the water in the soil's pores) is at atmospheric pressure ("vadose" is f ...
or
vadose zone
The vadose zone, also termed the unsaturated zone, is the part of Earth between the land surface and the top of the phreatic zone, the position at which the groundwater (the water in the soil's pores) is at atmospheric pressure ("vadose" is f ...
. The soil acts to partition hydrological inputs such as rainfall or snowmelt into
surface runoff,
soil moisture,
evapotranspiration
Evapotranspiration (ET) is the combined processes by which water moves from the earth’s surface into the atmosphere. It covers both water evaporation (movement of water to the air directly from soil, canopies, and water bodies) and transpi ...
and
groundwater recharge
Groundwater recharge or deep drainage or deep percolation is a hydrologic process, where water moves downward from surface water to groundwater. Recharge is the primary method through which water enters an aquifer. This process usually occurs ...
. Flows through the
unsaturated zone
The vadose zone, also termed the unsaturated zone, is the part of Earth between the land surface and the top of the phreatic zone, the position at which the groundwater (the water in the soil's pores) is at atmospheric pressure ("vadose" is f ...
that couple surface water to
soil moisture and
groundwater
Groundwater is the water present beneath Earth's surface in rock and soil pore spaces and in the fractures of rock formations. About 30 percent of all readily available freshwater in the world is groundwater. A unit of rock or an unconsolidated ...
can be upward or downward, depending upon the gradient of
hydraulic head in the soil, can be modeled using the numerical solution of
Richards' equation partial differential equation, or the ordinary differential equation Finite Water-Content method as validated for modeling
groundwater
Groundwater is the water present beneath Earth's surface in rock and soil pore spaces and in the fractures of rock formations. About 30 percent of all readily available freshwater in the world is groundwater. A unit of rock or an unconsolidated ...
and
vadose zone
The vadose zone, also termed the unsaturated zone, is the part of Earth between the land surface and the top of the phreatic zone, the position at which the groundwater (the water in the soil's pores) is at atmospheric pressure ("vadose" is f ...
interactions.
Operational inputs
The operational inputs concern human interferences with the ''water management'' like
irrigation
Irrigation (also referred to as watering) is the practice of applying controlled amounts of water to land to help grow crops, landscape plants, and lawns. Irrigation has been a key aspect of agriculture for over 5,000 years and has been devel ...
,
drainage
Drainage is the natural or artificial removal of a surface's water and sub-surface water from an area with excess of water. The internal drainage of most agricultural soils is good enough to prevent severe waterlogging (anaerobic condition ...
, pumping from
wells
Wells most commonly refers to:
* Wells, Somerset, a cathedral city in Somerset, England
* Well, an excavation or structure created in the ground
* Wells (name)
Wells may also refer to:
Places Canada
*Wells, British Columbia
England
* Wells ...
,
watertable control Watertable control is the practice of controlling the height of the water table by drainage. Its main applications are in agricultural land (to improve the crop yield using agricultural drainage systems) and in cities to manage the extensive under ...
, and the operation of
retention or
infiltration
Infiltration may refer to:
Science, medicine, and engineering
*Infiltration (hydrology), downward movement of water into soil
*Infiltration (HVAC), a heating, ventilation, and air conditioning term for air leakage into buildings
*Infiltration (me ...
basins, which are often of an hydrological nature.
These inputs may also vary in time and space.
Many groundwater models are made for the purpose of assessing the effects
hydraulic engineering
Hydraulic engineering as a sub-discipline of civil engineering is concerned with the flow and conveyance of fluids, principally water and sewage. One feature of these systems is the extensive use of gravity as the motive force to cause the m ...
measures.
Boundary and initial conditions
![Boundary value problem-en](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/Boundary_value_problem-en.svg)
''Boundary conditions'' can be related to levels of the
water table
The water table is the upper surface of the zone of saturation. The zone of saturation is where the pores and fractures of the ground are saturated with water. It can also be simply explained as the depth below which the ground is saturated.
T ...
,
artesian pressures, and
hydraulic head along the boundaries of the model on the one hand (the ''head conditions''), or to groundwater inflows and outflows along the boundaries of the model on the other hand (the ''flow conditions''). This may also include quality aspects of the water like salinity.
The ''initial conditions'' refer to initial values of elements that may increase or decrease in the course of the time ''inside'' the model domain and they cover largely the same phenomena as the boundary conditions do.
The initial and boundary conditions may vary from place to place. The boundary conditions may be kept either constant or be made variable in time.
Parameters
![File-Saltmod8 (2)](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/File-Saltmod8_%282%29.JPG)
The parameters usually concern the
geometry
Geometry (; ) is, with arithmetic, one of the oldest branches of mathematics. It is concerned with properties of space such as the distance, shape, size, and relative position of figures. A mathematician who works in the field of geometry is ...
of and
distance
Distance is a numerical or occasionally qualitative measurement of how far apart objects or points are. In physics or everyday usage, distance may refer to a physical length or an estimation based on other criteria (e.g. "two counties over"). ...
s in the domain to be modelled and those physical properties of the aquifer that are more or less constant with time but that may be variable in space.
Important parameters are the
topography
Topography is the study of the forms and features of land surfaces. The topography of an area may refer to the land forms and features themselves, or a description or depiction in maps.
Topography is a field of geoscience and planetary sc ...
, thicknesses of soil / rock layers and their horizontal/vertical
hydraulic conductivity
Hydraulic conductivity, symbolically represented as (unit: m/s), is a property of porous materials, soils and rocks, that describes the ease with which a fluid (usually water) can move through the pore space, or fractures network. It depends on ...
(permeability for water),
aquifer transmissivity and
resistance,
aquifer porosity and
storage coefficient, as well as the
capillarity
Capillary action (sometimes called capillarity, capillary motion, capillary rise, capillary effect, or wicking) is the process of a liquid flowing in a narrow space without the assistance of, or even in opposition to, any external forces li ...
of the unsaturated zone. For more details see the article on
hydrogeology
Hydrogeology (''hydro-'' meaning water, and ''-geology'' meaning the study of the Earth) is the area of geology that deals with the distribution and movement of groundwater in the soil and rocks of the Earth's crust (commonly in aqui ...
.
Some parameters may be influenced by changes in the groundwater situation, like the thickness of a soil layer that may reduce when the water table drops and/the hydraulic pressure is reduced. This phenomenon is called
subsidence. The thickness, in this case, is variable in time and not a parameter proper.
Applicability
The applicability of a groundwater model to a real situation depends on the accuracy of the input data and the
parameters
A parameter (), generally, is any characteristic that can help in defining or classifying a particular system (meaning an event, project, object, situation, etc.). That is, a parameter is an element of a system that is useful, or critical, when ...
. Determination of these requires considerable study, like collection of hydrological data (
rainfall
Rain is water droplets that have condensed from atmospheric water vapor and then fall under gravity. Rain is a major component of the water cycle and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water on the Earth. It provides water f ...
,
evapotranspiration
Evapotranspiration (ET) is the combined processes by which water moves from the earth’s surface into the atmosphere. It covers both water evaporation (movement of water to the air directly from soil, canopies, and water bodies) and transpi ...
,
irrigation
Irrigation (also referred to as watering) is the practice of applying controlled amounts of water to land to help grow crops, landscape plants, and lawns. Irrigation has been a key aspect of agriculture for over 5,000 years and has been devel ...
,
drainage
Drainage is the natural or artificial removal of a surface's water and sub-surface water from an area with excess of water. The internal drainage of most agricultural soils is good enough to prevent severe waterlogging (anaerobic condition ...
) and determination of the parameters mentioned before including
pumping test An aquifer test (or a pumping test) is conducted to evaluate an aquifer by "stimulating" the aquifer through constant pumping, and observing the aquifer's "response" ( drawdown) in observation wells. Aquifer testing is a common tool that hydrogeo ...
s. As many parameters are quite variable in space, expert judgment is needed to arrive at representative values.
The models can also be used for the if-then analysis: if the value of a parameter is A, then what is the result, and if the value of the parameter is B instead, what is the influence? This analysis may be sufficient to obtain a rough impression of the groundwater behavior, but it can also serve to do a ''sensitivity analysis'' to answer the question: which factors have a great influence and which have less influence. With such information one may direct the efforts of investigation more to the influential factors.
When sufficient data have been assembled, it is possible to determine some of missing information by calibration. This implies that one assumes a range of values for the unknown or doubtful value of a certain parameter and one runs the model repeatedly while comparing results with known corresponding data. For example, if
salinity figures of the groundwater are available and the value of
hydraulic conductivity
Hydraulic conductivity, symbolically represented as (unit: m/s), is a property of porous materials, soils and rocks, that describes the ease with which a fluid (usually water) can move through the pore space, or fractures network. It depends on ...
is uncertain, one assumes a range of conductivities and the selects that value of conductivity as "true" that yields salinity results close to the observed values, meaning that the groundwater flow as governed by the hydraulic conductivity is in agreement with the salinity conditions. This procedure is similar to the measurement of the flow in a river or canal by letting very saline water of a known salt concentration drip into the channel and measuring the resulting salt concentration downstream.
Dimensions
Groundwater models can be one-dimensional, two-dimensional, three-dimensional and semi-three-dimensional.
Two and three-dimensional models can take into account the
anisotropy
Anisotropy () is the property of a material which allows it to change or assume different properties in different directions, as opposed to isotropy. It can be defined as a difference, when measured along different axes, in a material's physic ...
of the aquifer with respect to the
hydraulic conductivity
Hydraulic conductivity, symbolically represented as (unit: m/s), is a property of porous materials, soils and rocks, that describes the ease with which a fluid (usually water) can move through the pore space, or fractures network. It depends on ...
, i.e. this property may vary in different directions.
One-, two- and three-dimensional
![MODFLOW 3D grid](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/80/MODFLOW_3D_grid.png)
#One-dimensional models can be used for the vertical flow in a system of parallel horizontal layers.
#
Two-dimensional
In mathematics, a plane is a Euclidean ( flat), two-dimensional surface that extends indefinitely. A plane is the two-dimensional analogue of a point (zero dimensions), a line (one dimension) and three-dimensional space. Planes can arise as ...
models apply to a vertical plane while it is assumed that the groundwater conditions repeat themselves in other parallel vertical planes (Fig. 4).
Spacing equations of subsurface drains and the
groundwater energy balance The groundwater energy balance is the energy balance of a groundwater body in terms of incoming hydraulic energy associated with groundwater inflow into the body, energy associated with the outflow, energy conversion into heat due to friction of fl ...
applied to drainage equations are examples of two-dimensional groundwater models.
#
Three-dimensional
Three-dimensional space (also: 3D space, 3-space or, rarely, tri-dimensional space) is a geometric setting in which three values (called ''parameters'') are required to determine the position of an element (i.e., point). This is the informa ...
models like
Modflow
MODFLOW is the U.S. Geological Survey modular finite-difference flow model, which is a computer code that solves the groundwater flow equation. The program is used by hydrogeologists to simulate the flow of groundwater through aquifers. The so ...
require
discretization of the entire flow domain. To that end the flow region must be subdivided into smaller elements (or cells), in both horizontal and vertical sense. Within each cell the parameters are maintained constant, but they may vary between the cells (Fig. 5). Using
numerical solutions of
groundwater flow equation Used in hydrogeology, the groundwater flow equation is the mathematical relationship which is used to describe the flow of groundwater through an aquifer. The transient flow of groundwater is described by a form of the diffusion equation, similar ...
s, the flow of groundwater may be found as horizontal, vertical and, more often, as intermediate.
Semi three-dimensional
![Well arrangement](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/Well_arrangement.svg)
In semi 3-dimensional models the
horizontal flow is described by 2-dimensional flow equations (i. e. in horizontal x and y direction).
Vertical
Vertical is a geometric term of location which may refer to:
* Vertical direction, the direction aligned with the direction of the force of gravity, up or down
* Vertical (angles), a pair of angles opposite each other, formed by two intersecting s ...
flows (in z-direction) are described (a) with a 1-dimensional flow equation, or (b) derived from a
water balance
The law of water balance states that the inflows to any water system or area is equal to its outflows plus change in storage during a time interval. In hydrology, a water balance equation can be used to describe the flow of water in and out of ...
of horizontal flows converting the excess of horizontally incoming over the horizontally outgoing groundwater into vertical flow under the assumption that water is
incompressible
In fluid mechanics or more generally continuum mechanics, incompressible flow ( isochoric flow) refers to a flow in which the material density is constant within a fluid parcel—an infinitesimal volume that moves with the flow velocity. An eq ...
.
There are two classes of semi 3-dimensional models:
*''Continuous models'' or ''radial models'' consisting of 2 dimensional submodels in vertical
radial
Radial is a geometric term of location which may refer to:
Mathematics and Direction
* Vector (geometric), a line
* Radius, adjective form of
* Radial distance, a directional coordinate in a polar coordinate system
* Radial set
* A bearing f ...
planes intersecting each other in one single axis. The flow pattern is repeated in each vertical plane fanning out from the central axis.
*''Discretized models'' or ''prismatic models'' consisting of submodels formed by vertical blocks or
prism
Prism usually refers to:
* Prism (optics), a transparent optical component with flat surfaces that refract light
* Prism (geometry), a kind of polyhedron
Prism may also refer to:
Science and mathematics
* Prism (geology), a type of sedimentary ...
s for the horizontal flow combined with one or more methods of
superposition of the vertical flow.
Continuous radial model
An example of a non-discretized radial model is the description of groundwater flow moving radially towards a
deep well in a network of wells from which water is abstracted. The radial flow passes through a vertical, cylindrical, cross-section representing the hydraulic
equipotential
In mathematics and physics, an equipotential or isopotential refers to a region (mathematics), region in space where every point is at the same potential. This usually refers to a scalar potential (in that case it is a level set of the potential ...
of which the
surface
A surface, as the term is most generally used, is the outermost or uppermost layer of a physical object or space. It is the portion or region of the object that can first be perceived by an observer using the senses of sight and touch, and is ...
diminishes in the direction of the axis of intersection of the radial planes where the well is located.
Prismatically discretized model
Prismatically discretized models like
SahysMod SahysMod is a computer program for the prediction of the salinity of soil moisture, groundwater and drainage water, the depth of the watertable, and the drain discharge in irrigated agricultural lands, using different hydrogeologic and aquifer con ...
[ILRI, 1995. ''SahysMod: Spatial Agro-Hydro-Salinity Model. Description of Principles, User Manual, and Case Studies''. International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement (ILRI), Wageningen, Netherlands. On line]
/ref> have a grid over the land surface only. The 2-dimensional grid network consists of triangles, squares, rectangles or polygons
In geometry, a polygon () is a plane figure that is described by a finite number of straight line segments connected to form a closed ''polygonal chain'' (or ''polygonal circuit''). The bounded plane region, the bounding circuit, or the two to ...
. Hence, the flow domain is subdivided into vertical blocks or prisms. The prisms can be discretized into ''horizontal'' layers with different characteristics that may also vary between the prisms. The groundwater flow between neighboring prisms is calculated using 2-dimensional horizontal groundwater flow equations. Vertical flows are found by applying one-dimensional flow equations in a vertical sense, or they can be derived from the water balance: excess of horizontal inflow over horizontal outflow (or vice versa) is translated into vertical flow, as demonstrated in the article Hydrology (agriculture) Agricultural hydrology is the study of water balance components intervening in agricultural water management, especially in irrigation and drainage.
Water balance components
The water balance components can be grouped into components correspond ...
.
In semi 3-dimensional models, intermediate flow between horizontal and vertical is not modelled like in truly 3-dimensional models. Yet, like the truly 3-dimensional models, such models do permit the introduction of horizontal and vertical subsurface drainage
Drainage is the natural or artificial removal of a surface's water and sub-surface water from an area with excess of water. The internal drainage of most agricultural soils is good enough to prevent severe waterlogging (anaerobic condition ...
systems.
Semiconfined aquifers with a slowly permeable layer overlying the aquifer (the aquitard
An aquifer is an underground layer of water-bearing, permeability (Earth sciences), permeable rock, rock fractures, or unconsolidated materials (gravel, sand, or silt). Groundwater from aquifers can be extracted using a water well. Aquifers vary ...
) can be included in the model by simulating vertical flow through it under influence of an overpressure in the aquifer proper relative to the level of the watertable inside or above the aquitard.
Groundwater modeling software and references
* Analytic Element Method The analytic element method (AEM) is a numerical method used for the solution of partial differential equations. It was initially developed by O.D.L. Strack at the University of Minnesota. It is similar in nature to the boundary element method (BE ...
* FEFLOW
FEFLOW (Finite Element subsurface FLOW system) is a computer program for simulating groundwater flow, mass transfer and heat transfer in porous media and fractured media. The program uses finite element analysis to solve the groundwater flow eq ...
* SVFlux
* FEHM
FEHM is a groundwater model that has been developed in thEarth and Environmental Sciences Divisionat Los Alamos National Laboratory over the past 30 years. The executable is available free at thFEHM Website The capabilities of the code have expa ...
* HydroGeoSphere
MicroFEM
* MODFLOW
MODFLOW is the U.S. Geological Survey modular finite-difference flow model, which is a computer code that solves the groundwater flow equation. The program is used by hydrogeologists to simulate the flow of groundwater through aquifers. The so ...
** GMS GMS may refer to:
Education
* Gates Millennium Scholars Program, higher education scholarship program in the United States
* Glen Mills Schools, in Thornbury Township, Delaware County, Pennsylvania, United States
* Governor Morehead School, in Ra ...
** Visual MODFLOW
Visual MODFLOW (VMOD) is a graphical interface (GUI) for the open source groundwater modeling engine MODFLOW. VMOD was developed by Waterloo Hydrogeologic and first released in 1994, the first commercially available GUI for MODFLOW. In May 2012 ...
** Processing Modflow
OpenGeoSys
* SahysMod SahysMod is a computer program for the prediction of the salinity of soil moisture, groundwater and drainage water, the depth of the watertable, and the drain discharge in irrigated agricultural lands, using different hydrogeologic and aquifer con ...
, Spatial agro-hydro-salinity-aquifer model, online
US Geological Survey Water Resources Ground Water Software
MARTHE from the French Geological Survey (BRGM)
* ZOOMQ3D
Free groundwater modelling course for starters
See also
* Aquifer
An aquifer is an underground layer of water-bearing, permeable rock, rock fractures, or unconsolidated materials ( gravel, sand, or silt). Groundwater from aquifers can be extracted using a water well. Aquifers vary greatly in their characteris ...
* Groundwater
Groundwater is the water present beneath Earth's surface in rock and soil pore spaces and in the fractures of rock formations. About 30 percent of all readily available freshwater in the world is groundwater. A unit of rock or an unconsolidated ...
* Groundwater flow equation Used in hydrogeology, the groundwater flow equation is the mathematical relationship which is used to describe the flow of groundwater through an aquifer. The transient flow of groundwater is described by a form of the diffusion equation, similar ...
* Groundwater energy balance The groundwater energy balance is the energy balance of a groundwater body in terms of incoming hydraulic energy associated with groundwater inflow into the body, energy associated with the outflow, energy conversion into heat due to friction of fl ...
* Hydraulic conductivity
Hydraulic conductivity, symbolically represented as (unit: m/s), is a property of porous materials, soils and rocks, that describes the ease with which a fluid (usually water) can move through the pore space, or fractures network. It depends on ...
* Hydrogeology
Hydrogeology (''hydro-'' meaning water, and ''-geology'' meaning the study of the Earth) is the area of geology that deals with the distribution and movement of groundwater in the soil and rocks of the Earth's crust (commonly in aqui ...
* Salinity model
* Watertable control Watertable control is the practice of controlling the height of the water table by drainage. Its main applications are in agricultural land (to improve the crop yield using agricultural drainage systems) and in cities to manage the extensive under ...
* Groundwater drainage by wells
Footnotes
{{DEFAULTSORT:Groundwater Model
Scientific simulation software
Hydrogeology
Hydrology models