Dame Patsy and Sir David with Governor-General and Mrs Hurley

Governor-general (plural ''governors-general''), or governor general (plural ''governors general''), is the title of an office-holder. In the context of governors-general and former British colonies, governors-general are appointed as

viceroy A viceroy () is an official who reigns over a polity in the name of and as the representative of the monarch of the territory. The term derives from the Latin prefix ''vice-'', meaning "in the place of" and the French word ''roy'', meaning " ...

to represent the monarch of a

personal union A personal union is the combination of two or more states that have the same monarch while their boundaries, laws, and interests remain distinct. A real union, by contrast, would involve the constituent states being to some extent interlink ...

in any

sovereign state A sovereign state or sovereign country, is a political entity represented by one central government that has supreme legitimate authority over territory. International law defines sovereign states as having a permanent population, defined te ...

over which the monarch does not normally reign in person. Governors-general have also previously been appointed in respect of major colonial

state State may refer to: Arts, entertainment, and media Literature * ''State Magazine'', a monthly magazine published by the U.S. Department of State * ''The State'' (newspaper), a daily newspaper in Columbia, South Carolina, United States * ''Our S ...

s or other territories held by either a monarchy or republic, such as Japan in

Korea Korea ( ko, 한국, or , ) is a peninsular region in East Asia. Since 1945, it has been divided at or near the 38th parallel, with North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea) comprising its northern half and South Korea (Republic o ...

and

France France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. Its metropolitan area ...

Indochina Mainland Southeast Asia, also known as the Indochinese Peninsula or Indochina, is the continental portion of Southeast Asia. It lies east of the Indian subcontinent and south of Mainland China and is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the west an ...

Current uses

In modern usage, in the context of governor-generals and former British colonies, the term ''governor-general'' originated in those British colonies that became self-governing within the

British Empire The British Empire was composed of the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates, and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It began with the overseas possessions and trading posts e ...

. Before World War I, the title was used only in federated colonies in which its constituents had had ''governors'' prior to federating, namely

Canada Canada is a country in North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, covering over , making it the world's second-largest country by tot ...

, Australia, and the

Union of South Africa The Union of South Africa ( nl, Unie van Zuid-Afrika; af, Unie van Suid-Afrika; ) was the historical predecessor to the present-day Republic of South Africa. It came into existence on 31 May 1910 with the unification of the Cape, Natal, Tran ...

. In these cases, the Crown's representative in the federated

Dominion The term ''Dominion'' is used to refer to one of several self-governing nations of the British Empire. "Dominion status" was first accorded to Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Newfoundland, South Africa, and the Irish Free State at the 192 ...

was given the superior title of ''governor-general''. The first exception to this rule was New Zealand, which was granted Dominion status in 1907, but it was not until 28 June 1917 that Arthur Foljambe, 2nd Earl of Liverpool, was appointed the first governor-general of New Zealand. Since the 1950s, the title ''governor-general'' has been given to all representatives of the sovereign in independent Commonwealth realms. In these cases, the former office of colonial governor was altered (sometimes for the same incumbent) to become governor-general upon independence, as the nature of the office became an entirely independent constitutional representative of the monarch rather than a symbol of previous colonial rule. In these countries the governor-general acts as the monarch's representative, performing the ceremonial and constitutional functions of a

head of state A head of state (or chief of state) is the public persona who officially embodies a state Foakes, pp. 110–11 " he head of statebeing an embodiment of the State itself or representatitve of its international persona." in its unity and l ...

. The only other nation which currently uses the governor-general designation is

Iran Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and also called Persia, is a country located in Western Asia. It is bordered by Iraq and Turkey to the west, by Azerbaijan and Armenia to the northwest, by the Caspian Sea and Turkmeni ...

, which has no connection with any monarchy or the Commonwealth. In Iran, the provincial authority is headed by a governor general (

Persian Persian may refer to: * People and things from Iran, historically called ''Persia'' in the English language ** Persians, the majority ethnic group in Iran, not to be conflated with the Iranic peoples ** Persian language, an Iranian language of the ...

: استاندار ''ostāndār''), who is appointed by the

minister of the interior An interior minister (sometimes called a minister of internal affairs or minister of home affairs) is a cabinet official position that is responsible for internal affairs, such as public security, civil registration and identification, emergency ...

Governors-general in the British Empire

Until the 1920s, governors-general were British subjects, appointed on the advice of the British government, who acted as agents of the British government in each Dominion, as well as being representatives of the monarch. As such they notionally held the prerogative powers of the monarch, and also held the executive power of the country to which they were assigned. The governor-general could be instructed by the colonial secretary on the exercise of some of his functions and duties, such as the use or withholding of

royal assent Royal assent is the method by which a monarch formally approves an act of the legislature, either directly or through an official acting on the monarch's behalf. In some jurisdictions, royal assent is equivalent to promulgation, while in oth ...

from legislation; history shows many examples of governors-general using their prerogative and executive powers. The monarch or imperial government could overrule any governor-general, though this could often be cumbersome, due to the remoteness of the territories from London. The governor-general was also usually the commander-in-chief of the armed forces in their territory and, because of the governor-general's control of the military, the post was as much a military appointment as a civil one. The governors-general are entitled to wear a unique uniform, which is not generally worn today. If of the rank of major general, equivalent or above, they were entitled to wear that military uniform.

Modern Commonwealth

Commonwealth realms

Following the

Imperial Conference Imperial Conferences (Colonial Conferences before 1907) were periodic gatherings of government leaders from the self-governing colonies and dominions of the British Empire between 1887 and 1937, before the establishment of regular Meetings of ...

, and subsequent issuing of the Balfour Declaration in 1926, the role and responsibilities of the governor-general began to shift, reflecting the increased independence of the

s (which were in 1952 renamed Realms; a term which includes the UK itself). As the sovereign came to be regarded as monarch of each territory independently, and, as such, advised only by the ministers of each country in regard to that country's national affairs (as opposed to a single British monarch ruling all the Dominions as a conglomerate and advised only by an imperial parliament), so too did the governor-general become a direct representative of the national monarch only, who no longer answered to the British government. The report resulting from the 1926 Imperial Conference stated: "It is an essential consequence of the equality of status existing among the members of the British Commonwealth of Nations that the Governor General of a Dominion is the representative of the Crown, holding in all essential respects the same position in relation to the administration of public affairs in the Dominion as is held by His Majesty the King in Great Britain, and that he is not the representative or agent of His Majesty's Government in Great Britain or of any Department of that Government." These concepts were entrenched in legislation with the enactment of the Statute of Westminster in 1931, and governmental relations with the United Kingdom were placed in the hands of a British High Commissioner in each country. In other words, the political reality of a self-governing Dominion within the British Empire with a governor-general answerable to the sovereign became clear. British interference in the Dominion was not acceptable and independent country status was clearly displayed. Canada, Australia, and New Zealand were clearly not controlled by the United Kingdom. The monarch of these countries (

Charles III Charles III (Charles Philip Arthur George; born 14 November 1948) is King of the United Kingdom and the 14 other Commonwealth realms. He was the longest-serving heir apparent and Prince of Wales and, at age 73, became the oldest person t ...

) is in law

King of Canada The monarchy of Canada is Canada's form of government embodied by the Canadian sovereign and head of state. It is at the core of Canada's constitutional Canadian federalism, federal structure and Westminster system, Westminster-style Parliamentar ...

King of Australia The monarchy of Australia is Australia's form of government embodied by the Australian sovereign and head of state. The Australian monarchy is a constitutional monarchy, modelled on the Westminster system of parliamentary government, while ...

, and

King of New Zealand The monarchy of New Zealand is the constitutional system of government in which a hereditary monarch is the sovereign and head of state of New Zealand. The current monarch, King Charles III, ascended the throne following the death of his mot ...

and only acts on the advice of the ministers in each country and is in no way influenced by the British government. Today, therefore, in former British colonies that are now independent Commonwealth realms, the governor-general is constitutionally the representative of the monarch in their state and may exercise the

reserve power In a parliamentary or semi-presidential system of government, a reserve power, also known as discretionary power, is a power that may be exercised by the head of state without the approval of another branch or part of the government. Unlike in ...

s of the monarch according to their own constitutional authority. The governor-general, however, is still appointed by the monarch and takes an oath of allegiance to the monarch of his or her own country. Executive authority is also vested in the monarch, though much of it can be exercisable only by the governor-general on behalf of the sovereign of the independent realm.

Letters of credence A letter of credence (french: Lettre de créance) is a formal diplomatic letter that designates a diplomat as ambassador to another sovereign state. Commonly known as diplomatic credentials, the letter is addressed from one head of state to anot ...

or letters of recall are in some realms received or issued in the name of the monarch, but in others (such as

and Australia) are issued in the name of the governor-general alone. At diplomatic functions where the governor-general is present, the visiting diplomat or head of state toasts "The King" or "The Queen" of the relevant realm, not the governor-general, with any reference to the governor-general being subsidiary in later toasts if featuring at all, and will involve a toast to the governor-general by name, not office. (e.g., "Mrs. Smith", not "Her Excellency, the Governor-General". Sometimes a toast might be made using name and office, e.g., "Governor-General Smith".) Except in rare cases (for example, a constitutional crisis), the governor-general usually acts in accordance with constitutional convention and upon the

advice Advice (noun) or advise (verb) may refer to: * Advice (opinion), an opinion or recommendation offered as a guide to action, conduct * Advice (constitutional law) a frequently binding instruction issued to a constitutional office-holder * Advice (p ...

of the national prime minister (who is head of the nation's government). The governors-general are still the local representatives of the sovereign and perform the same duties as they carried out historically, though their role is for the most part ceremonial (or partly ceremonial). Rare and controversial exceptions occurred in 1926, when Canadian governor general

the Viscount Byng of Vimy Field Marshal Julian Hedworth George Byng, 1st Viscount Byng of Vimy, (11 September 1862 – 6 June 1935) was a British Army officer who served as Governor General of Canada, the 12th since the Canadian Confederation. Known to friends as "Bu ...

refused

Prime Minister A prime minister, premier or chief of cabinet is the head of the cabinet and the leader of the ministers in the executive branch of government, often in a parliamentary or semi-presidential system. Under those systems, a prime minister i ...

Mackenzie King's request for a dissolution of parliament; in 1953 and 1954 when the governor-general of Pakistan, Ghulam Mohammad, staged a constitutional coup against the prime minister and then the Constituent Assembly; and in 1975, when the governor-general of Australia,

Sir John Kerr Sir John Robert Kerr (24 September 1914 – 24 March 1991) was an Australian barrister and judge who served as the 18th Governor-General of Australia, in office from 1974 to 1977. He is primarily known for his involvement in the 1975 constit ...

, dismissed the prime minister,

Gough Whitlam Edward Gough Whitlam (11 July 191621 October 2014) was the 21st prime minister of Australia, serving from 1972 to 1975. The longest-serving federal leader of the Australian Labor Party (ALP) from 1967 to 1977, he was notable for being the ...

(to name a few). It should be remembered that while governors-general do not normally take drastic action, they still have a responsibility to ensure that the constitution is respected and followed at all times. In many ways, the governor-general acts as an umpire/mediator (who must remain independent/non-partisan and objective) in the political scene. In some realms, the monarch could in principle overrule a governor-general, as governors-general are representatives of the monarch rather than holding power in their own right, but this has not happened in recent times. In Australia, the present king is generally assumed to be the head of state, since the governor-general and the state governors are defined as his "representatives". However, since the governor-general performs almost all national regal functions, the governor-general has occasionally been referred to as the head of state in political and media discussion. To a lesser extent, uncertainty has been expressed in Canada as to which officeholder—the monarch, the governor-general, or both—can be considered the head of state. A governor-general is usually a person with a distinguished record of public service, often a retired politician, judge or military commander; however, some countries have also appointed prominent academics, members of the clergy, philanthropists, or figures from the news media to the office. Traditionally, the governor-general's official attire was a unique uniform, but this practice has been abandoned except on occasions when it is appropriate to be worn (and in some countries abandoned altogether). In South Africa, the

governor-general of the Union of South Africa The governor-general of the Union of South Africa ( af, Goewerneur-generaal van Unie van Suid-Afrika, nl, Goeverneur-generaal van de Unie van Zuid-Afrika) was the highest state official in the Union of South Africa between 31 May 1910 and 31 ...

nominated by the Afrikaner

Nationalist Nationalism is an idea and movement that holds that the nation should be congruent with the state. As a movement, nationalism tends to promote the interests of a particular nation (as in a group of people), Smith, Anthony. ''Nationalism: Th ...

government chose not to wear uniform on any occasion. Most governors-general continue to wear appropriate

medal A medal or medallion is a small portable artistic object, a thin disc, normally of metal, carrying a design, usually on both sides. They typically have a commemorative purpose of some kind, and many are presented as awards. They may be int ...

s on their clothing when required. The governor-general's official residence is usually called ''Government House.'' The governor-general of the Irish Free State resided in the then Viceregal Lodge in

Phoenix Park The Phoenix Park ( ga, Páirc an Fhionnuisce) is a large urban park in Dublin, Ireland, lying west of the city centre, north of the River Liffey. Its perimeter wall encloses of recreational space. It includes large areas of grassland and tre ...

Dublin Dublin (; , or ) is the capital and largest city of Ireland. On a bay at the mouth of the River Liffey, it is in the province of Leinster, bordered on the south by the Dublin Mountains, a part of the Wicklow Mountains range. At the 2016 c ...

, but the government of

Éamon de Valera Éamon de Valera (, ; first registered as George de Valero; changed some time before 1901 to Edward de Valera; 14 October 1882 – 29 August 1975) was a prominent Irish statesman and political leader. He served several terms as head of govern ...

sought to downgrade the office and the last governor-general,

Domhnall Ua Buachalla Domhnall Ua Buachalla (; en, Daniel Richard "Donal" Buckley; 3 February 1866 – 30 October 1963) was an Irish politician and member of the First Dáil who served as third and final governor-general of the Irish Free State and later served as ...

, did not reside there. The office was abolished there in 1936. In most Commonwealth realms, the flag of the governor-general has been the standard pattern of a blue

field Field may refer to: Expanses of open ground * Field (agriculture), an area of land used for agricultural purposes * Airfield, an aerodrome that lacks the infrastructure of an airport * Battlefield * Lawn, an area of mowed grass * Meadow, a grass ...

with the royal crest (a lion standing on a crown) above a scroll with the name of the jurisdiction. In

, however, this was replaced with a crowned lion clasping a maple leaf. In the

Solomon Islands Solomon Islands is an island country consisting of six major islands and over 900 smaller islands in Oceania, to the east of Papua New Guinea and north-west of Vanuatu. It has a land area of , and a population of approx. 700,000. Its capit ...

, the scroll was replaced with a two-headed

frigate bird Frigatebirds are a family of seabirds called Fregatidae which are found across all tropical and subtropical oceans. The five extant species are classified in a single genus, ''Fregata''. All have predominantly black plumage, long, deeply forked ...

motif, while in Fiji, the former governor general's flag featured a

whale Whales are a widely distributed and diverse group of fully aquatic placental marine mammals. As an informal and colloquial grouping, they correspond to large members of the infraorder Cetacea, i.e. all cetaceans apart from dolphins and ...

's tooth. In New Zealand, the flag was replaced in 2008 with the shield of the coat of arms of New Zealand surmounted by a crown on a blue field. Governors-general are accorded the style of ''Their

Excellency Excellency is an honorific style given to certain high-level officers of a sovereign state, officials of an international organization, or members of an aristocracy. Once entitled to the title "Excellency", the holder usually retains the right ...

''. This style is also extended to their spouses.

Appointment

Until the 1920s, governors general were British, and appointed on the advice of the British Government. Following the changes to the structure of the Commonwealth in the late 1920s, in 1929, the Australian prime minister

James Scullin James Henry Scullin (18 September 1876 – 28 January 1953) was an Australian Labor Party politician and the ninth Prime Minister of Australia. Scullin led Labor to government at the 1929 Australian federal election. He was the first Cathol ...

established the right of a

prime minister to advise the monarch directly on the appointment of a governor-general, by insisting that his choice (

Isaac Isaacs Sir Isaac Alfred Isaacs (6 August 1855 – 11 February 1948) was an Australian lawyer, politician, and judge who served as the ninth Governor-General of Australia, in office from 1931 to 1936. He had previously served on the High Court of Au ...

, an Australian) prevail over the recommendation of the British government. The convention was gradually established throughout the Commonwealth that the governor-general would be a citizen of the country concerned, and would be appointed on the advice of the government of that country, with no input from the British government;

governor general of Canada The governor general of Canada (french: gouverneure générale du Canada) is the federal viceregal representative of the . The is head of state of Canada and the 14 other Commonwealth realms, but resides in oldest and most populous realm, ...

since 1952 and governor-general of New Zealand since 1967. Since 1931 as each former Dominion has

patriate Patriation is the political process that led to full Canadian sovereignty, culminating with the Constitution Act, 1982. The process was necessary because under the Statute of Westminster 1931, with Canada's agreement at the time, the British par ...

d its constitution from the UK, the convention has become law, or, since 1947, when the first realms established with a patriated constitution,

India India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...

and

Pakistan Pakistan ( ur, ), officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan ( ur, , label=none), is a country in South Asia. It is the world's fifth-most populous country, with a population of almost 243 million people, and has the world's second-lar ...

, were established, was always law, and no government of any realm can advise the Monarch on any matter pertaining to another realm, including the appointment of a governor-general. The monarch appoints a governor-general (in Canada: ''governor general'') as a personal representative only on the advice of the prime minister of each realm; for example, the governor-general of New Zealand is appointed by the king of New Zealand on the advice of the New Zealand prime minister, the governor-general of Tuvalu is appointed by the king of Tuvalu on the advice of the Tuvaluan prime minister, and the governor-general of Jamaica is appointed by the king of Jamaica on the advice of the Jamaican prime minister. In Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands, the prime minister's advice is based on the result of a vote in the national parliament. The formalities for appointing governors-general are not the same in all realms. For example: When appointed, a governor-general of Australia issues a proclamation in his own name, countersigned by the head of government and under the Great Seal of Australia, formally announcing that he has been appointed by the monarch's commission, previously issued also under the Great Seal of Australia. The practice in Canada is to include in the governor general's proclamation of appointment, issued under the

Great Seal of Canada The Great Seal of Canada (french: Grand Sceau du Canada) is a governmental seal used for purposes of state in Canada, being set on letters patent, proclamations and commissions, both to representatives of the monarch and for the appointment of ...

,See, the monarch's commission naming the governor general as commander-in-chief of the

Canadian Forces } The Canadian Armed Forces (CAF; french: Forces armées canadiennes, ''FAC'') are the unified military forces of Canada, including sea, land, and air elements referred to as the Royal Canadian Navy, Canadian Army, and Royal Canadian Air Forc ...

. Also dissimilar among the realms are the powers of governors-general. The Belizean constitution provides the governor-general with the power to assent or to withhold assent to laws, while Papua New Guinea has no requirement for royal assent at all, with laws entering into force when certified as having been passed in Parliament by the Speaker.

Commonwealth countries with a governor-general

Other attributes

Different realms have different constitutional arrangements governing who acts in place of the governor-general in the event of their death, resignation, or incapacity. *In Australia, an ''administrator of the Commonwealth'' may be appointed to perform the necessary official functions, pending a decision by the sovereign, on the advice of the prime minister, about a permanent replacement as governor-general. The administrator has usually been the senior

state governor A governor is an administrative leader and head of a polity or political region, ranking under the head of state and in some cases, such as governors-general, as the head of state's official representative. Depending on the type of political ...

. Each state governor normally holds what is known as a

dormant commission A dormant commission is a commission in a Commonwealth realm that lies dormant or sleeping until it is triggered by a particular event. Historically, a dormant commission was given in relation to a military command. During the Crimean War, Sir ...

. Cases have however occurred where a state governor has fallen out of favour with the federal government, causing the latter to revoke that governor's dormant commission. The most recent example was that of Sir

Colin Hannah Air Marshal Sir Colin Thomas Hannah, (22 December 1914 – 22 May 1978) was a senior commander in the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) and a Governor of Queensland. Born in Western Australia, he was a member of the Militia before joining the ...

, governor of Queensland, in 1975. *In the Bahamas, Canada, Jamaica, and New Zealand, it is the chief justice. *In Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands and Tuvalu it is the

Speaker Speaker may refer to: Society and politics * Speaker (politics), the presiding officer in a legislative assembly * Public speaker, one who gives a speech or lecture * A person producing speech: the producer of a given utterance, especially: ** I ...

*Many have a specific office of ''deputy governor-general'', who act in their place—but often e.g. only for temporary incapacity.

Former Commonwealth realms

The title has been used in many former British colonies, which became independent realms and then later became republics. Each of these realms had a governor-general.

In Africa

Governor-General of the Gambia This is a list of the heads of state of the Gambia, from the independence of the Gambia in 1965 to the present day. From 1965 to 1970 the head of state under the Constitution of 1965 was the queen of the Gambia, Elizabeth II, who was also the ...

(1965–1970) *

Governor-General of Ghana This is a list of the heads of state of Ghana, from the independence of Ghana in 1957 to the present day. From 1957 to 1960 the head of state under the Constitution of 1957 was the queen of Ghana, Elizabeth II, who was also the queen of the Un ...

(1957–1960) *

Governor-General of Kenya This is a list of the heads of state of Kenya, from the independence of Kenya in 1963 to the present day. From 1963 to 1964 the head of state under the Constitution of 1963 was the queen of Kenya, Elizabeth II, who was also the queen of the ...

(1963–1964) *

Governor-General of Malawi This is a list of the heads of state of Malawi, from the independence of Malawi in 1964 to the present day. From 1964 to 1966 the head of state under the Constitution of 1964 was the queen of Malawi, Elizabeth II, who was also the queen of the ...

(1964–1966) *

Governor-General of Mauritius The governor-general of Mauritius (french: gouverneur général de Maurice) was the representative of the Mauritian monarch in Mauritius from the country's independence in 1968 until it became a Commonwealth republic in 1992.Governor-General of Nigeria (1960–1963) *

Governor-General of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland The Governor-General of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland (also known as the Central African Federation) served as the representative of the British monarch in the country. The federation was formed on 1 August 1953 from the former coloni ...

(1953–1963) (Although the position was called ''governor-general'', the federation was neither a dominion nor an independent country.) * Governor-General of Sierra Leone (1961–1971) *

Governor-General of the Union of South Africa The governor-general of the Union of South Africa ( af, Goewerneur-generaal van Unie van Suid-Afrika, nl, Goeverneur-generaal van de Unie van Zuid-Afrika) was the highest state official in the Union of South Africa between 31 May 1910 and 31 ...

(1910–1961) *

Governor-General of Tanganyika This is a list of the heads of state of Tanzania, from the independence of Tanganyika (1961–1964), Tanganyika in 1961 to the present day. From 1961 to 1962 the head of state under the Constitution of Tanzania, Constitution of 1961 was the que ...

(1961–1962) * Governor-General of Uganda (1962–1963) * In Rhodesia (now

Zimbabwe Zimbabwe (), officially the Republic of Zimbabwe, is a landlocked country located in Southeast Africa, between the Zambezi and Limpopo Rivers, bordered by South Africa to the south, Botswana to the south-west, Zambia to the north, and ...

), a unique situation arose following the

Unilateral Declaration of Independence A unilateral declaration of independence (UDI) is a formal process leading to the establishment of a new state by a subnational entity which declares itself independent and sovereign without a formal agreement with the state which it is secedin ...

in 1965, unrecognised by the United Kingdom. The Rhodesian Front government of

Ian Smith Ian Douglas Smith (8 April 1919 – 20 November 2007) was a Rhodesian politician, farmer, and fighter pilot who served as Prime Minister of Rhodesia (known as Southern Rhodesia until October 1964 and now known as Zimbabwe) from 1964 to 1 ...

recognised

Elizabeth II Elizabeth II (Elizabeth Alexandra Mary; 21 April 1926 – 8 September 2022) was Queen of the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth realms from 6 February 1952 until her death in 2022. She was queen regnant of 32 sovereign states during ...

as "Queen of Rhodesia", but refused to recognise the authority of her governor,

Sir Humphrey Gibbs Sir Humphrey Vicary Gibbs, (22 November 19025 November 1990), was the penultimate Governor of the colony of Southern Rhodesia, from 24 October 1964 simply Rhodesia, who served until, and opposed, the Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI ...

, whose duties were performed by an "officer administering the government",

Clifford Dupont Clifford Walter Dupont, GCLM, ID (6 December 1905 – 28 June 1978) was a British-born Rhodesian politician who served in the internationally unrecognised positions of officer administrating the government (from 1965 until 1970) and president ...

(1905–1978). Dupont served in the post until 2 March 1970, when Rhodesia was declared a republic (an act also unrecognised internationally), and he became

president President most commonly refers to: *President (corporate title) * President (education), a leader of a college or university * President (government title) President may also refer to: Automobiles * Nissan President, a 1966–2010 Japanese ...

. The country became an independent republic within the Commonwealth as Zimbabwe on 18 April 1980.

In the Americas

Governor-General of the West Indies Federation The governor-general of the West Indies Federation was a post in the government of the West Indies. The federation, also known as the British Caribbean Federation, consisted of Antigua (with Barbuda), Barbados, Cayman Islands, Dominica, Grena ...

(1958–1962) (Although the position was called governor-general, the federation was neither a dominion nor an independent country.) *

Governor-General of Barbados The governor-general of Barbados was the representative of the Barbadian monarch from independence in 1966 until the establishment of a republic in 2021. Under the government's Table of Precedence for Barbados, the governor-general of Barbados ...

(1966–2021) *

Governor-General of Guyana This is a list of the heads of state of Guyana, from the independence of Guyana in 1966 to the present day. From 1966 to 1970 the head of state under the Constitution of 1966 was the queen of Guyana, Elizabeth II, who was also the queen of the ...

(1966–1970) * Governor-General of Trinidad and Tobago (1962–1976)

In Asia

Governor-General of Ceylon The Governor-General of Ceylon was the representative of the Ceylonese monarch in the Dominion of Ceylon from the country's independence in 1948 until it became the republic of Sri Lanka in 1972. History There were four governors-general. ...

(1948–1972) *

Governor-General of India The Governor-General of India (1773–1950, from 1858 to 1947 the Viceroy and Governor-General of India, commonly shortened to Viceroy of India) was the representative of the monarch of the United Kingdom and after Indian independence in 1 ...

(1947–1950) * Governor-General of Pakistan (1947–1956)

In Europe

* Governor-General of the Irish Free State (1922–1936) *

Governor-General of Malta The governor-general of Malta ( mt, Gvernatur-Ġenerali ta' Malta) was the official representative of Elizabeth II, Queen of Malta, in the State of Malta from 1964 to 1974. This office replaced that of the governor, and it was replaced by that ...

(1964–1974)

In Oceania

Governor-General of Fiji The governor-general of Fiji was the representative of the Fijian monarch in the Dominion of Fiji from the country's independence in 1970 until the monarchy's deposition in 1987. History Fiji became a sovereign state and an independent monarc ...

(1970–1987)

Other colonial and similar usage

Belgium

Belgian Congo The Belgian Congo (french: Congo belge, ; nl, Belgisch-Congo) was a Belgian colony in Central Africa from 1908 until independence in 1960. The former colony adopted its present name, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), in 1964. Colo ...

; * Ruanda-Urundi

Brazil

Brazil Brazil ( pt, Brasil; ), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (Portuguese: ), is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. At and with over 217 million people, Brazil is the world's fifth-largest country by area ...

, after a few governors, from 1578 until its promotion in 1763 to a

viceroyalty A viceroyalty was an entity headed by a viceroy. It dates back to the Spanish conquest of the Americas in the sixteenth century. France * Viceroyalty of New France Portuguese Empire In the scope of the Portuguese Empire, the term " Viceroyalt ...

(though various members of the nobility since 1640 had assumed, without sovereign authority, the title of Viceroy).

France

The equivalent term in French is ''gouverneur général'', used in the following colonies: * From 1887 to 1945 the French appointed a governor-general to govern

French Indo-China French Indochina (previously spelled as French Indo-China),; vi, Đông Dương thuộc Pháp, , lit. 'East Ocean under French Control; km, ឥណ្ឌូចិនបារាំង, ; th, อินโดจีนฝรั่งเศส, ...

(now

Vietnam Vietnam or Viet Nam ( vi, Việt Nam, ), officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam,., group="n" is a country in Southeast Asia, at the eastern edge of mainland Southeast Asia, with an area of and population of 96 million, making i ...

, Laos and

Cambodia Cambodia (; also Kampuchea ; km, កម្ពុជា, UNGEGN: ), officially the Kingdom of Cambodia, is a country located in the southern portion of the Indochinese Peninsula in Southeast Asia, spanning an area of , bordered by Thailan ...

); the function of the high commissioner in the Pacific Ocean, from 22 March 1907 held by the governors of New Caledonia, was used to coordinate that colony, the other French settlements in Oceania and the other governors of French Indochina and the

resident commissioner Resident commissioner was or is an official title of several different types of commissioners, who were or are representatives of any level of government. Historically, they were appointed by the British Crown in overseas protectorates (such ...

s of the

New Hebrides New Hebrides, officially the New Hebrides Condominium (french: link=no, Condominium des Nouvelles-Hébrides, "Condominium of the New Hebrides") and named after the Hebrides Scottish archipelago, was the colonial name for the island group ...

and the resident (title), residents of Wallis and Futuna were subordinated to him. * The governor-general of New France was the vice-regal post in New France from 1663 until 1760 and was the last French vice-regal post. It was replaced by the British post of governor of the Province of Quebec following the fall of New France. While the districts of Montreal and Trois-Rivières had their own governors, the governor-general of New France and the governor of the district of Quebec were the same person. * From 1699 to 1947, the French appointed a governor-general to administer French India (including History of Pondicherry, Pondichéry). *Governors-general of the Mascarene Islands (under control of the charter companies, chartered Compagnie des Indes to 14 July 1767) from 4 June 1735 (succeeding to governors), and after its split-up of Mauritius (Réunion and the Seychelles got lower-styled commandants or governors), until 25 September 1803 * Haiti January 1714 – 31 December 1803; last incumbent Jean-Jacques Dessalines shortly maintained the title after the January I, 1804 independence before proclaiming himself Emperor Jacques I * Since its creation on 16 June 1895 in French West Africa (AOF), until 4 April 1957; the last stayed on as first of two high commissioners * Madagascar * From 28 June 1908 (previously it had a Commissaire général, i.e. commissioner general) to 4 April 1957 (the last stayed on as first of three high commissioners) in French Equatorial Africa (AEF); during several periods he also acted as governor of the constitutive colony Congo Brazzaville. Furthermore, in Napoleonic Europe successive French governors-general were appointed by Napoleon I in: * the German states of Brandenburg (various others got "mere" governors), two incumbents between 27 October 1806 and 10 December 1808, during the French occupation * Province of Courland under the French occupation (from 1 August 1812, Duchy of Courland and Semigallia and District of Pilten nominally re-established under joint French-Saxon protectorate 8 October 1812 – 20 December 1812) : Jacques David Martin, baron de Campredon (1761–1837) * Parma and Piacenza under occupation, (after a commissioner) 15 February 1804 – 23 July 1808, later annexed as ''département'' under a "prefect of Taro". * principality of Piombino May 1806 – 1811: Adolphe Beauvais (d. 1811) * annexed Tuscany, two incumbents, over prefects for Arno (department), Arno, Méditerranée [Mediterranean] and Ombrone: ** May 1808 – 3 March 1809 Jacques François de Boussay, baron de Menou (1750–1810) ** 3 March 1809 – 1 February 1814 Elisa Baciocchi Bonaparte (with courtesy style of Grand Duchess of Tuscany) (1777–1820) * the Illyrian provinces (comprising present Croatia, Slovenia and even adjacent parts of Austria and Italy), annexed as part of the French Empire proper, 14 October 1809 – August 1813

Japan

From 1895 to 1945, Taiwan under Japanese rule, Japanese-administered Taiwan had a Governor-General of Taiwan, governor-general. From 1910 to 1945, Korea under Japanese rule, Japanese-administered Korea had a Governor-General of Korea, governor-general. From 1905 to 1910, Japan had a Japanese Resident-General of Korea, resident-general in Korean Empire, Korea.

Netherlands

From 1610 to 1942 the Dutch appointed a ''Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies, gouverneur-generaal'' ("governor-general") to govern the Netherlands East Indies, now Indonesia. Between the capitulation of the Dutch East Indies in 1942 and the formal end of colonial rule over Indonesia by the Dutch in 1949, no governor-general was appointed. While in the Caribbean, various other titles were used, Curaçao had three governors-general between 1816 and 1820: *1816–1819 Albert Kikkert *1819–1820 Petrus Bernardus van Starkenborgh *1820 Isaäk Johannes Rammelman Elsevier

Portugal

The equivalent word in Portuguese is ''governador-geral''. This title was only used for the governors of the major colonies, indicating that they had, under their authority, several subordinate governors. In most of the colonies, lower titles, mainly ''governador'' (governor) or formerly captain-major (''capitão-mor''), prevailed *In the Portuguese State of India (''Estado da Índia'', capital Goa) the style was changed repeatedly for another, mostly ''vice-rei'' (Viceroy). The viceroy title was usually reserved for members of the Portuguese royal family, the remaining governors receiving the title of ''governador-general''; *in Africa, from 1837 Portugal appointed a governor-general to govern the overseas province of Portuguese Angola, Angola, and another to govern the province of Portuguese Mozambique, Moçambique. For some time, a governor-general was also appointed to rule Portuguese Cape Verde, Cape Verde and Portuguese Guinea, while these territories were united in a single province. Between 1921 and 1930, additional powers were given to some of the Angola and Mozambique governors, who were restyled in full ''Alto-comissário e governador-geral'' (high commissioner and governor-general).

Philippines

The Philippines from the 16th through the 20th century had a series of governors-general during the Spanish and American colonial periods, as well as the Japanese occupation of the Philippines during World War II

Spain

From 21 November 1564 the Spanish East Indies had a Governor-General of the Philippines, governor-general, which was under the Viceroyalty of New Spain, Viceroy of New Spain based in Mexico. After the successful Mexican War of Independence in 1821, the governor-general reported directly to Spain.

United States

From 1899 to 1935 under the Insular Government, the Philippines was administered by a series of Governor-General of the Philippines, governors-general, first military and then civilian, appointed by the Federal government of the United States, United States federal government.

Other Western usage

Greece

The Balkan Wars of 1912–13 led to the Greek acquisition of the so-called "New Lands" (Epirus (Greece), Epirus, Macedonia (Greece), Macedonia, Crete and the islands of the eastern Aegean), almost doubling the country's territory. Instead of fully incorporating these new lands into Greece by dividing them into prefectures of Greece, prefectures, the Ottoman administrative system continued in existence for a while, and Law ΔΡΛΔ΄ of 1913 established five governorates-general (Γενικαὶ Διοικήσεις, sing. Γενική Διοίκησις): Epirus, Macedonia, Crete, Northern Aegean, Aegean and Samos–Ikaria. The governors-general had wide-ranging authority in their territories, and were almost autonomous of the government in Athens. Law 524 in 1914 abolished the governorates-general and divided the New Lands into regular prefectures, but in 1918 Law 1149 re-instated them as a superordinate administrative level above the prefectures, with Macedonia now divided in two governorates-general, those of Thessaloniki and Kozani–Florina. The governors-general of Thessaloniki, Crete and Epirus were also given ministerial rank. To these was added the Governorate-General of Thrace in 1920–22, comprising Western Thrace and Eastern Thrace (returned to Turkey in the Armistice of Mudanya in 1922). The extensive but hitherto legally rather undefined powers of the governors-general created friction and confusion with other government branches, until their remit was exactly delineated in 1925. The governorates-general, except for that of Thessaloniki, were abolished in 1928, but re-established in December 1929—for Crete, Epirus, Thrace, and Macedonia—and delegated practically all ministerial authorities for their respective areas. Over the next decade, however, in a see-saw of legislative measures that in turn gave and took away authority, they gradually lost most of their powers in favour of the prefectures and the central government in Athens. Following liberation from the Axis occupation of Greece, Axis occupation, in 1945 the Governorate-General of Northern Greece was established, initially with subordinate governorates for West Macedonia, Central Macedonia, East Macedonia and Thrace, East Macedonia, and Thrace, the first three of which were then grouped anew into a new Governorate-General of Macedonia, albeit still subject to the Governorate-General of Northern Greece. This awkward arrangement lasted until 1950, when the administration of Macedonia was streamlined, the junior governorates abolished and only the Governorate-General of Northern Greece retained. Finally, in 1955, the Governorate-General of Northern Greece was transformed into the Ministry of Northern Greece, and all other governorates-general elsewhere in Greece were abolished.

Sweden

From 1636 to 1815, the Monarchy of Sweden, king of Sweden typically appointed the Governors-General of Sweden, governors-general of Sweden for the Dominions of Sweden, Swedish Dominions on the eastern side of the Baltic sea and in northern Germany, but occasionally also for Skåne, Scania.

Other

* From 1809 to 1918 Russia designated Governor-General of Finland, governors-general of Finland in the Grand Duchy of Finland; Vistula Land#Government, Governors-General of Poland in Vistula Land and other Governors-General in various other Guberniya, governorates-general. * From 1939 to 1944, during the German occupation of Poland, in that part of the country designated the General Government the Nazi official Hans Frank had the title Governor-General (german: Generalgouverneur für die besetzten polnischen Gebiete – Governor-General of the occupied Polish areas). * The Kingdom of Saxony had two governors-general during the period of Sixth Coalition, Allied control of the after the defeat of the French emperor Napoleon I: ** 28 October 1813 – 8 November 1814 Prince Nikolay Grigorievich Repnin-Volkonsky (Russia) (1778–1845) ** 8 November 1814 – 8 June 1815 Eberhard Friedrich Christoph Ludwig, Freiherr von der Recke (Prussia) (1744–1826) * During the occupation of Serbia by Austria-Hungary, Austrian-Hungarian and Bulgarian forces in World War I, the Austrian-Hungarian government appointed three consecutive governors-general: ** 1 January 1916 – July 1916 Johan Ulrich Graf von Salis-Seewis (1862–1940) ** July 1916 – October 1918 Adolf Freiherr von Rhemen zu Barensfeld (1855–1932) ** October 1918 – 1 November 1918 Hermann Kövess von Kövessháza, Hermann Freiherr Kövess von Kövessháza (1854–1924; a former military commander in northern Serbia)

Asian counterparts

* From 1644 to 1911, in Qing dynasty China, a governor-general or ''Viceroys in China, viceroy'' () was the highest official of joint military and civil affairs in one or several Province of China, provinces. * The hereditary ''shōgun'' of Japan ( ja, 征夷大将軍, ''sei-i tai-shōgun'') who ruled in the name of the emperor from 1185 until 1868 were equivalent to governors-general, though they often had far greater power than a governor-general would ordinarily have. * Imperial Japan: **From 1895 to 1945, Taiwan under Japanese rule, Taiwan was administered by the Japanese Governor-General of Taiwan, governor-general of Taiwan (Japanese: 台湾総督, ''taiwan sōtoku''). ** From 1910 to 1945,

was administered by the Japanese Governor General of Korea, governor-general of Korea (Japanese: 朝鮮総督, ''chōsen sōtoku''). * Iran, Islamic Republic of Iran **The Provinces of Iran, provincial authority is headed by an appointed governor-general (

: استاندار, ''ostāndār'').

Notes and references

Notes

References

External links

WorldStatesmen

National Museum of Australia
Governor-General's red box (government), despatch box (1937–1952) {{Authority control Gubernatorial titles Commonwealth realms Governors-general, Heads of state Governance of the British Empire