(, literally "goblet words") is an ancient Chinese

rhetorical device In rhetoric, a rhetorical device, persuasive device, or stylistic device is a technique that an author or speaker uses to convey to the listener or reader a meaning with the goal of persuading them towards considering a topic from a perspective, ...

, supposedly named in analogy with a type of wine vessel that tilts over when full and rights itself when empty. The

Daoist Taoism (, ) or Daoism () refers to either a school of philosophical thought (道家; ''daojia'') or to a religion (道教; ''daojiao''), both of which share ideas and concepts of Chinese origin and emphasize living in harmony with the ''Tao'' ...

classic first recorded this term for a mystical linguistic ideology, which is generally interpreted to mean fluid language that maintains its equilibrium through shifting meanings and viewpoints, thus enabling one to spontaneously go along with all sides of an argument.

Terminology

The text contains

neologisms A neologism Greek νέο- ''néo''(="new") and λόγος /''lógos'' meaning "speech, utterance"] is a relatively recent or isolated term, word, or phrase that may be in the process of entering common use, but that has not been fully accepted int ...

for three figure of speech, figures of speech: (, lit. "lodged words"), (, "repeated words") or (, "weighted words"), and (, "goblet words")—later referred to as the (, "three inds ofwords"). These terms

compound Compound may refer to: Architecture and built environments * Compound (enclosure), a cluster of buildings having a shared purpose, usually inside a fence or wall ** Compound (fortification), a version of the above fortified with defensive struct ...

(, "speech, talk; sayings; words") with (, "lodge, reside; dwell, sojourn; entrust; imply, contain"), (, "double, multiple; duplicate, repeat; accumulate") or (, "heavy; weight, weighty, important; serious"), and ( or , "ancient wine goblet"). All three of these ancient Zhuangzian terms became part of modern

Standard Chinese Standard Chinese ()—in linguistics Standard Northern Mandarin or Standard Beijing Mandarin, in common speech simply Mandarin, better qualified as Standard Mandarin, Modern Standard Mandarin or Standard Mandarin Chinese—is a modern Standar ...

vocabulary; is a common word meaning "fable; allegory; parable", is a specialized linguistic term for "

reduplication In linguistics, reduplication is a morphological process in which the root or stem of a word (or part of it) or even the whole word is repeated exactly or with a slight change. The classic observation on the semantics of reduplication is Edwa ...

, reduplicated word/morpheme", and is a

literary Literature is any collection of Writing, written work, but it is also used more narrowly for writings specifically considered to be an art form, especially prose fiction, drama, and poetry. In recent centuries, the definition has expanded to ...

reference to , sometimes used in self-deprecatory titles, such as Wang Shizhen's () 1558

Goblet Words on Art and Literature). The first

Chinese dictionary Chinese dictionaries date back over two millennia to the Han dynasty, which is a significantly longer lexicographical history than any other language. There are hundreds of dictionaries for the Chinese language, and this article discusses some of ...

of characters,

Xu Shen Xu Shen ( CE) was a Chinese calligrapher, philologist, politician, and writer of the Eastern Han Dynasty (25-189). He was born in the Zhaoling district of Run'an prefecture (today known as Luohe in Henan Province). During his own lifetime, ...

's c. 121 CE , provides a representative set of ancient

Han dynasty The Han dynasty (, ; ) was an imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD), established by Liu Bang (Emperor Gao) and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–207 BC) and a warr ...

"wine vessel" names. ( or ) is defined as "a round vessel (), also called (), used to regulate drinking and eating ()", which is a classical allusion to the (27). () is in turn defined as a "small (), and the (, "wine-drinking cup") definition says refers to a full () and to an empty one. The defines () as a "ceremonial wine-drinking horn used in the countryside ()", cites the "The host then sits, takes the goblet, and washes it. ()", and notes that one was a liquid measure equivalent to four (, about half a gallon). ( 𦓝) is defined as a "small goblet" (), and ( 𡭐) as a "small goblet with handles and a cover" (). Another Han scholar

Ying Shao Ying Shao (140–206), courtesy name Zhongyuan, was a Chinese politician, writer and historian who lived during the Eastern Han dynasty. He was an author of the ''Fengsu Tongyi'', an encyclopedic work about the folk customs and legends that exis ...

(140-206) said () and () refer to the same object, "A regional drinking-vessel for ritual use; formerly made holding four ; formerly the word ( ) was written () or lso pronounced ()". Lin Shuen-fu disagrees with Ying and suggests () and () denote different sizes vessels of the same type and function, specifically the type of wine goblets that have a "round, column-like body, a slightly flaring mouth, and a ring foot". The historian

Wang Guowei Wang Guowei (; 2 December 18772 June 1927) or Wang Kuo-wei, courtesy name Jing'an () or Boyu (), was a Chinese historian and poet. A versatile and original scholar, he made important contributions to the studies of ancient history, epigraphy, ph ...

linguistically equated the () goblet with four ancient wine vessels: (), (), (𡭐), and (𦓝). The former two are written with the standard " horn radical" (; no. 148 in the ''Kangxi'' radicals); and the latter two with the ancient "goblet radical" (; no. 337 in the ''Shuowen Jiezi'' radicals), a lexicographic category with only these two rare characters. The Chinese

epigrapher Epigraphy () is the study of inscriptions, or epigraphs, as writing; it is the science of identifying graphemes, clarifying their meanings, classifying their uses according to dates and cultural contexts, and drawing conclusions about the wr ...

Rong Geng () archaeologically concluded that the original denotations of or are uncertain. Within the

Chinese ritual bronze Sets and individual examples of ritual bronzes survive from when they were made mainly during the Chinese Bronze Age. Ritual bronzes create quite an impression both due to their sophistication of design and manufacturing process, but also beca ...

terminology of

Song dynasty The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the rest ...

(960-1127)

antiquarians An antiquarian or antiquary () is an aficionado or student of antiquities or things of the past. More specifically, the term is used for those who study history with particular attention to ancient artifacts, archaeological and historic si ...

, () was a common

Western Zhou The Western Zhou ( zh, c=, p=Xīzhōu; c. 1045 BC – 771 BC) was a royal dynasty of China and the first half of the Zhou dynasty. It began when King Wu of Zhou overthrew the Shang dynasty at the Battle of Muye and ended when the Quanrong noma ...

era (c. 1045-771 BCE) wine vessel with a small, oval cross section, ring-feet, slender S-shaped profile, and often a cover; and ( or ) was a rare

Spring and Autumn period The Spring and Autumn period was a period in Chinese history from approximately 770 to 476 BC (or according to some authorities until 403 BC) which corresponds roughly to the first half of the Eastern Zhou period. The period's name derives fr ...

(771-476 BCE) wine drinking vessel with a squat oval cross-section, ring-feet, and annular handles. Chinese ritual bronze wine vessels associated with () goblets File:Chinese - Wine Vessel - Walters 542184.jpg, () tripod wine flagon,

Shang dynasty The Shang dynasty (), also known as the Yin dynasty (), was a Chinese royal dynasty founded by Tang of Shang (Cheng Tang) that ruled in the Yellow River valley in the second millennium BC, traditionally succeeding the Xia dynasty and ...

, c. 12th century BCE File:西周“父丁”有盖铜角1.jpg, () tripod wine flagon,

, c. 7th century BCE File:Chinese - Wine beaker - Walters 541237.jpg, () tall wine beaker, Shang dynasty, c. 13th century BCE File:Ritual Wine Vessel (Guang), 13th-11th century B.C.E. Bronze, 72.163a-b.jpg, () zoomorphic covered wine pitcher, Shang dynasty, c. 13th–11th century BCE File:ShouMianWenZhi.JPG, () wine goblet with ogre-mask motif, Western Zhou ''

Stoup A holy water font or stoup is a vessel containing holy water which is generally placed near the entrance of a church. It is often placed at the base of a crucifix or religious representation. It is used in the Catholic Church, Anglican Churches ...

'' is another English translation of Chinese ( or ): "stoup, a cylindrical vessel reminiscent of a beer tankard or a coffee mug. It sometimes comes with a cover", and "flagon, stoup, covered tankard, sometimes said to have capacity of 4 'pints' ( )".

''Zhuangzi''

The oldest extant references to (, "goblet words") occur in chapters 27 and 33 of the c. 4th-3rd century BCE Daoist . Both passages give metadiscursive analyses of the language used in , namely, the three inds ofwords, (, "metaphors"), (, "quotations"), and (, "impromptu words"). Note that unless otherwise identified, translations are by

Victor H. Mair Victor Henry Mair (; born March 25, 1943) is an American sinologist. He is a professor of Chinese at the University of Pennsylvania. Among other accomplishments, Mair has edited the standard '' Columbia History of Chinese Literature'' and the ''C ...

Passages

Chapter 27 (, "Metaphors") mentions () three times in the phrase "impromptu words pour forth every day and harmonize within the framework of nature" ( ) ), and these passages are described as "the most difficult in the entire chapter". First, the lead (27/1) introduces this phrase, which two parallel passages repeat and describe how using impromptu goblet words can result in longevity. Second, the (27/5) says, "Consequently, there is effusive elaboration 'mànyǎn'' (, "spread out far and wide")so that they may live out their years" ( ). Third, the context (27/9) asks a (, "not") negative conditional question, "If it were not for the impromptu words that pour forth every day and harmonize within the framework of nature, who could last long?" ( ).

Metaphors are effective nine times out of ten and quotations seven times out of ten, but impromptu words come forth every day and harmonize within the framework of nature Metaphors are effective nine times out of ten because they borrow externals to discuss something. A father does not act as a matchmaker for his son. It's better for someone who is not the father to praise the son than for the father himself to do so. Then it won't be his own fault, but somebody else's fault. If someone agrees with oneself, one responds favorably, but if someone does not agree with oneself, one opposes them. One considers to be right those who agree with oneself and considers to be wrong those who disagree with oneself Quotations are effective seven times out of ten because their purpose is to stop speech. They are from our elders, those who precede us in years. But those who fill up the years of their old age without grasping what is significant and what is rudimentary are not really our predecessors. If a man has not that whereby he precedes others, he lacks the way of humanity. If a man lacks the way of humanity, he may be called a stale person. Impromptu words pour forth every day and harmonize within the framework of nature Consequently, there is effusive elaboration so that they may live out their years Without speech, there is equality. Equality plus speech yields inequality; speech plus equality yields inequality. Therefore, it is said, "Speak nonspeech." If you speak nonspeech, you may speak till the end of your life without ever having spoken. If till the end of your life you do not speak, you will never have failed to speak. There are grounds for affirmation and there are grounds for denial. There are grounds for saying that something is so and there are grounds for saying that something is not so. Why are things so? They are so because we declare them to be so. Why are things not so? They are not so because we declare that to be not so. Wherein lies affirmation? Affirmation lies in our affirming. Wherein lies denial? Denial lies in our denying. All things are possessed of that which we may say is so; all things are possessed of that which we may affirm. There is no thing that is not so; there is no thing that is not affirmable. If it were not for the impromptu words that pour forth every day and harmonize within the framework of nature, who could last long The myriad things are all from seeds, and they succeed each other because of their different forms From start to finish it is like a circle whose seam is not to be found This is called the celestial potter's wheel, and the celestial potter's wheel is the framework of nature (27/1-10).

The last part of this passage (27/10) equates (, tr. "framework of nature") with the word (, "celestial potter's wheel") that occurs in two other contexts. These interchangeable phonetic loan characters are (, "well balanced; equal; even; uniform; potter's wheel") and (, "potter's wheel; ancient unit of weight pprox. 15 kilos balance, harmonize") are graphically differentiated by the "

earth Earth is the third planet from the Sun and the only astronomical object known to harbor life. While large volumes of water can be found throughout the Solar System, only Earth sustains liquid surface water. About 71% of Earth's surfa ...

" and "

metal A metal (from Greek μέταλλον ''métallon'', "mine, quarry, metal") is a material that, when freshly prepared, polished, or fractured, shows a lustrous appearance, and conducts electricity and heat relatively well. Metals are typicall ...

" radicals. The former context says, "the sage harmonizes the right and wrong of things and rests at the center of the celestial potter's wheel", and the latter, "Knowledge that stops at what it cannot know is the ultimate. If someone does not subscribe to this, he will be worn down by the celestial potter's wheel" (2/40 and 23/45). The final chapter 33 (, " llUnder Heaven"), which summarizes early Chinese philosophy, reiterates and rearranges "lodged words," "repeated words," and "goblet words" in a context describing Zhuangzi's delight upon hearing ancient Daoist teachings. Like the goblet, this passage inverts the hierarchy of the three categories first presented in Chapter 27, and rights it by emphasizing as the most important and inclusive type of words.

With absurd expressions, extravagant words, and unbounded phrases he often gave rein to his whims but was not presumptuous and did not look at things from one angle only. Believing that all under heaven were sunk in stupidity and could not be talked to seriously, he used impromptu words for his effusive elaboration, quotations for the truth, and metaphors for breadth Alone, he came and went with the essential spirits of heaven and earth but was not arrogant toward the myriad things (33/64-6).

This word (, tr. "effusive elaboration") was also used with "goblet words" above (27/5), "Consequently, there is effusive elaboration so that they may live out their years"

Commentaries

Chinese scholarly commentaries on the , dating back to

Guo Xiang Guo Xiang (; born 252 AD – died 312 AD) is credited with the first and most important revision of the text known as the ''Zhuangzi'' which, along with the ''Tao Te Ching'', forms the textual and philosophical basis of the Taoist school of t ...

(252-312 CE), the earliest

redactor Redaction is a form of editing in which multiple sources of texts are combined and altered slightly to make a single document. Often this is a method of collecting a series of writings on a similar theme and creating a definitive and coherent wo ...

and editor of the text, provide invaluable information on understanding (, "goblet words"). For semantic perspective, summaries of how major commentators explain the related terms (, "lodged words") and (, "weighted words") or (, "repeated words") will be presented first. Most commentaries agree that are divided into and subcategories, which are overlapping as the percentages require. ''Yùyán''. Guo Xiang notes that (, "lodge; reside; relocate") means (, "lodge at temporarily; stop over; entrust to; confide in")

he words of He or HE may refer to: Language * He (pronoun), an English pronoun * He (kana), the romanization of the Japanese kana へ * He (letter), the fifth letter of many Semitic alphabets * He (Cyrillic), a letter of the Cyrillic script called ''He'' in ...

another person ().

Lu Deming Lu Deming (; 556(?)–630) was Tang dynasty Chinese scholar, author of the Jingdian Shiwen, which provides annotations on the classics, including alternate pronunciations of characters in specific contexts. In addition to authoring this work, Lu ...

's c. 583

exegetical Exegesis ( ; from the Greek , from , "to lead out") is a critical explanation or interpretation of a text. The term is traditionally applied to the interpretation of Biblical works. In modern usage, exegesis can involve critical interpretation ...

(Textual Explanations of Classics and Canons) glosses as (, "entrust to; confide to; commit to the care of; rely on"). The subcommentary by Daoist

Chongxuan School The Chongxuan School (Chinese: 重玄, pinyin: ''Chóngxuán'') was a Taoist philosophical current influenced by Buddhist Madhyamaka thought. It first appeared in the fifth century, and was influential from the eighth to tenth centuries during th ...

master

Cheng Xuanying Cheng Xuanying (; fl. 631–655), courtesy name Zishi (), was a Taoism, Taoist monk known to posterity as the "Master of Doctrines at Xihua Abbey“ () and was one of the principal representatives of the "School of Double Mystery" (Chongxuan Scho ...

(fl. 631-655) explains that although common people are stupid, unreasonable, and suspicious of Daoist teachings (), using to lodge in their viewpoints will enable them to understand, as exemplified by ''Zhuangzis famous allegorical characters such as

Hong Meng Hong Meng, Hung Meng, or Hung Mung (), literally the Vast Mist, is a character in the Daoist text ''Zhuangzi'' and a metaphor for the "primordial world, primeval chaos" in Chinese creation myths. Like many Zhuangist names, Hong Meng is a word play ...

(Vast Obscurity) and Yun Jiang (Cloud General). ''Zhòngyán'' (, "weighted/weighty words) or ''chóngyán'' (, "repeated words") are two main alternate readings. Guo Xiang implied that the term should be read , "the weighty authorities of the time" () the commentary of Guo Qingfan (, 1844-1896) cites his father

Guo Songtao Guo Songtao ( zh, 郭嵩燾, s=郭嵩焘, p=Guō Sōngtāo, w=Kuo Sung-t’ao; 11 April 1818 – 18 July 1891) was a Chinese diplomat and statesman during the Qing dynasty. He was among the first foreign emissaries to be sent abroad by the Q ...

(1818-1891) that it should be read , meaning "repetitions of words". Cheng's subcommentary says it refers to ancient sayings of respected ( ) local elders, personages such as the

Yellow Emperor The Yellow Emperor, also known as the Yellow Thearch or by his Chinese name Huangdi (), is a deity ('' shen'') in Chinese religion, one of the legendary Chinese sovereigns and culture heroes included among the mytho-historical Three Soverei ...

and

Confucius Confucius ( ; zh, s=, p=Kǒng Fūzǐ, "Master Kǒng"; or commonly zh, s=, p=Kǒngzǐ, labels=no; – ) was a Chinese philosopher and politician of the Spring and Autumn period who is traditionally considered the paragon of Chinese sages. C ...

. ''Zhiyan'' (, "goblet words") occur three times in chapter 27. For the first statement (27/1) that "impromptu words pour forth every day and harmonize within the framework of nature", Guo Xiang explains how "goblet words" (, "follow after; pursue; go along with; naturally adjust to") the changing meanings of their

referent A referent () is a person or thing to which a name – a linguistic expression or other symbol – refers. For example, in the sentence ''Mary saw me'', the referent of the word ''Mary'' is the particular person called Mary who is being spoken of, ...

s like a self-righting goblet.

A goblet when full gets tipped and when empty is set upright ��it does not just stay the same. How much the more this is true of words, for they change [] according to what they refer to. Since they but follow them (their referents), this is why the text says they "appear day by day" [''rìchū'' , "sunrise"]. "Appear day by day" means "new each day" 'rìxīn'' , "daily renewal" Since they are new each day, they fulfill what is naturally allotted to them 'zìrán zhī fēn'' , "natural boundaries" and because their natural allotments are thus fulfilled, they operate harmoniously.

Cheng Xuanying notes a goblet is a "wine vessel" (), and glosses as words spoken (, lit. "not heart-mind", "unwittingly; unintentionally; unconsciously") that go along with either side of an argument.

A goblet when full gets tipped and when empty is set upright Whether it is tipped or set upright depends on [] someone. Words uttered unconsciously [], this is what "goblet words" are. Therefore, one either does not speak or one's speech is done without any "tipping" or "being set upright." Only then do words match what is naturally allotted to them.

Cheng cites the alternate interpretation of Guo's contemporary

Sima Biao Sima Biao (; between 238 and 246 – 306), style name Shaotong (), was an historian and nobleman during the Jin dynasty of China. Biography Sima Biao was the eldest son of Sima Mu (司馬睦), Prince of Gaoyang. His grandfather was Sima Ji ...

(c. 238-306) that the text used (, "goblet") as a pun on the phonetic loan character (, "divergent; different") in (, "fragmented; disorganized; jumbled"), taking () to mean "words that are irregular, uneven, and jumbled, having neither a head nor a tail". For the second occurrence of "goblet words" in the statement that "Consequently, there is effusive elaboration so that they may live out their years" (27/5), Guo's commentary says that since "natural boundaries" () are dominated by neither right nor wrong and "effusively elaborate" (), no one can determine which is right. Thus, one can be in a worry-free state of mind and live out one's natural lifespan. Cheng Xuanying defines (, tr. "effusive elaboration") as (, "unconsciously; unintentionally"), which he uses above (27/1) to define , and explains that by following () the changes of each new day and harmonizing with natural boundaries, one can abide with the universal and instinctively deal with everything. Third, Zhuangzi (27/9) rhetorically questions "If it were not for the impromptu words that pour forth every day and harmonize within the framework of nature, who could last long?" Guo Xiang points out that we can avoid problems if our words follow () the (, "cut; design") of things and conform to () "natural boundaries", replacing his above (, lit. "self-so", "nature; natural") with the near-synonym (, lit. "heaven-so", "natural, not artificial; innate"). Cheng's subcommentary says the only way to achieve Daoist longevity is by following ( ) daily changes and having regard for natural principles. Guo does not comment on chapter 33's "he used impromptu words for his effusive elaboration, quotations for the truth, and metaphors for breadth". However, Cheng glosses goblet words as (, "not sure; uncertain; indefinite") and repeats his (27/5) gloss of () as (, "unconsciously"), which differs from his (27/1) gloss of as (, "words uttered unconsciously").

Translations

Describing the crosslinguistic difficulties of deciphering the , the translator

A. C. Graham Angus Charles Graham, FBA (8 July 1919 – 26 March 1991) was a Welsh scholar and sinologist who was professor of classical Chinese at the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. He was born in Penarth, Glamorgan, Wales t ...

said it perfectly illustrates "the kind of battering which a text may suffer between being written in one language and being transferred to another at the other end of the world some two thousand years later". Translating the

Old Chinese Old Chinese, also called Archaic Chinese in older works, is the oldest attested stage of Chinese language, Chinese, and the ancestor of all modern varieties of Chinese. The earliest examples of Chinese are divinatory inscriptions on oracle bones ...

word (, lit. "goblet word/saying") into English exemplifies these problems. Compare how some notable translations of the render the () contexts. In cases where translations have internal inconsistencies, the most common one is cited; take Legge for instance, "words are like the water that daily fills the cup", "Words like the water that daily issues from the cup", "words of the (water-)cup", " and "words of the cup". ''Yuyan'' () is commonly translated in the modern Chinese meaning of "metaphor". Watson explains his "imputed" translation to mean "words put into the mouth of historical or fictional persons to make them more compelling", which Ziporyn adapts. Following Guo Xiang's commentary that (, "lodge") means (, "lodge temporarily; impart" metaphorical meaning), Graham translates as "saying from a lodging-place", meaning the "temporary standpoints between which the sage circulates as the situation changes", and concludes, "the lodging-place is the standpoint of the other party in the debate. Although nothing can be settled by disputation, in which everyone has started from his own choice of names, it is possible to convince a man by temporarily assuming his standpoint and arguing from it". The present sample of translators are divided between parsing as (, "repeated words") or (, "weighty/weighted words). The former is evident in "quotations", "illustrations taken from valued writers", and literally translated "repeated words", Watson, who notes "words of the wise old men of the past which are 'repeated' or quoted to give authority to the argument". The latter interpretation appears in "language based upon weighty authority", and "'weighty' saying", Graham remarking that "Weighted saying is the aphorism with the weight of the speaker's experience behind it." Ziporyn's "citations from weighty ancient authorities" translation splits the difference. "Opalescent words" is an alternative translation of , which are "'double-rayed', that is, they say something to obey the authority of what they do not say, being 'opalescent' to the light of actuality". Several authors explain their translations of the semantically obscure word (). Giles notes that it refers to the "natural overflowings of the heart.".

Burton Watson Burton Dewitt Watson (June 13, 1925April 1, 2017) was an American sinologist, translator, and writer known for his English translations of Chinese and Japanese literature.Stirling 2006, pg. 92 Watson's translations received many awards, includi ...

says that "goblet words" are words that "adapt to and follow along with the fluctuating nature of the world and thus achieve a state of harmony". Graham gives two explanations of "'spillover' sayings".

We are told that it is for daily use, says most when it says least and least when it says most, that it shifts freely from one standpoint to another, and that we cannot prolong discourse or live out our lives without it. Presumably this is the ordinary language in which meanings fluctuate but right themselves in the spontaneous flow in discourse, providing that the speaker has the knack of using words, can 'smooth it out on the whetstone of Heaven.'

And it is "speech characterised by the intelligent spontaneity of Taoist behaviour in general, a fluid language which keeps its equilibrium through changing meanings and viewpoints". Watson says "goblet words" "adapt to and follow along with the fluctuating nature of the world and thus achieve a state of harmony". Acknowledging the "enormous variety of speculative opinion" about the meaning of "goblet words", Mair suggests it is "language that pours forth unconsciously and unpremeditatedly". The commentary of Wang Xianqian (, 1842-1917) says liquids adjust to a goblet's shape like goblet words follow individual semantics, and advises us to think flexibly and agree with the inconsistencies of what people say. Zhang Mosheng (, 1895-1979) described as language without any fixed opinion, like a (, "funnel") simply channeling the sound; "The is a funnel, and is funnel-like language. A funnel is hollow and bottomless, so that if one pours in water, it immediately leaks out.".

Modern interpretations

Numerous academics, described as "phalanxes of scholars", have analyzed and explained "goblet words". A survey of recent Chinese-language scholarship about variously explain it as allegorical dialogue, toast-like salutations to readers, words as endless as a circle, a

hypernym In linguistics, semantics, general semantics, and ontologies, hyponymy () is a semantic relation between a hyponym denoting a subtype and a hypernym or hyperonym (sometimes called umbrella term or blanket term) denoting a supertype. In other wor ...

of and , and comparable to poetry. As seen below, English-language studies of Zhuangzian goblet words are also wide-ranging, for instance comparing them with the writings of

Euripides Euripides (; grc, Εὐριπίδης, Eurīpídēs, ; ) was a tragedian Tragedy (from the grc-gre, τραγῳδία, ''tragōidia'', ''tragōidia'') is a genre of drama based on human suffering and, mainly, the terrible or sorrowful e ...

Plato Plato ( ; grc-gre, Πλάτων ; 428/427 or 424/423 – 348/347 BC) was a Greek philosopher born in Athens during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. He founded the Platonist school of thought and the Academy, the first institution ...

, and Kierkegaard. The sinologist and translator

D. C. Lau D. C. Lau (; 6 March 192126 April 2010) was a Chinese sinology, sinologist and author of the widely read translations of Daodejing, Tao Te Ching, Mencius and The Analects and contributed to the Proper Cantonese pronunciation movement. D. C. Lau ...

proposed that Guo Xiang's commentary referred to the rare Chinese (, "tilting vessel"), which is known in the Daoist tradition as (, "a cup for urging wine on a guest", or "warning goblet") and in the Confucian tradition as (, "a cautionary vessel placed beside one's seat on the right"). In the Daoist version illustrating the value of

emptiness Emptiness as a human condition is a sense of generalized boredom, social alienation and apathy. Feelings of emptiness often accompany dysthymia, depression (mood), depression, loneliness, anhedonia, wiktionary:despair, despair, or other mental/em ...

(e.g., ), the vessel is upright when empty and overturns when full. By contrast, in the Confucian version illustrating the value of the

mean There are several kinds of mean in mathematics, especially in statistics. Each mean serves to summarize a given group of data, often to better understand the overall value (magnitude and sign) of a given data set. For a data set, the ''arithme ...

(e.g., ), the vessel tilts to one side when empty, remains upright when filled to the middle, and overturns when filled to the brim. John Allen Tucker, professor of East Asian history at

East Carolina University East Carolina University (ECU) is a public university, public research university in Greenville, North Carolina. It is the fourth largest university in North Carolina. Founded on March 8, 1907, as a Normal school, teacher training school, East ...

, says the goblet, which repeatedly fills and empties itself, does not remain in any particular condition, its equilibrium exists in disequilibrium, and "goblet words" are a metaphor for the dialectic in the that goes from one possibility to the next, assuming perspectives often in order to ridicule them, but never clinging to any position itself. This particular goblet is also a Zhuangzian metaphor that expresses the semantic relationship between words and their meanings. "The goblet is like a word, the meaning is like the wine. Though the goblet can hold wine, and a word, meaning, this kind of goblet continuously spills its wine, just as words spill their meaning, and then both wait for another use. But like the goblet, there is no particular meaning which is statically filling the word, never being emptied or renewed.". The

University of Michigan , mottoeng = "Arts, Knowledge, Truth" , former_names = Catholepistemiad, or University of Michigania (1817–1821) , budget = $10.3 billion (2021) , endowment = $17 billion (2021)As o ...

professor of Chinese literature Shuen-fu Lin correlates , the empty goblet that does not hold onto anything, with "heart-mind" and explains how "goblet words" can adapt the meaning of any term:

e ''zhi''—a wine vessel used as a metaphor for the mind []—is originally empty and gets temporarily filled with liquid—a metaphor for words—which comes from a larger wine container only when the occasion requires one to do so.... Since the mind is like the vessel without any fixed or constant rules or values of its own stored in there, and takes ideas always from outside when the occasion for speech arises, it will never impose artificial distinctions and discriminations upon things. This is what s meant by"mindless"—the "mind" to be done away with here is, of course, the or "fully formed heart/mind" ... pillover sayings then, is speech that is natural, unpremeditated, free from preconceived values, always responding to the changing situations in the flow of discourse, and always returning the mind to its original state of emptiness as soon as a speech act is completed.

Lee H. Yearly, a

Stanford University Stanford University, officially Leland Stanford Junior University, is a private research university in Stanford, California. The campus occupies , among the largest in the United States, and enrolls over 17,000 students. Stanford is consider ...

professor of religious studies, extends the Zhuangzian "three kinds of language" to a basic issue in

religious ethics Ethics involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior.''Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy''"Ethics"/ref> A central aspect of ethics is "the good life", the life worth living or life that is simply sati ...

, how to persuasively represent a transcendent world central to our fulfillment that exceeds our normal understanding. "goblet or spillover language" is described as "that kind of fluid language in which equilibrium is kept despite (or perhaps because of) the presence of changing genres, rhetorical forms, points of view, and figurative expressions". Yearly traces out ways in which Zhuangzi's three kinds of language appear in

Dante Dante Alighieri (; – 14 September 1321), probably baptized Durante di Alighiero degli Alighieri and often referred to as Dante (, ), was an Italian poet, writer and philosopher. His ''Divine Comedy'', originally called (modern Italian: '' ...

's 1320 ''

Divine Comedy The ''Divine Comedy'' ( it, Divina Commedia ) is an Italian narrative poem by Dante Alighieri, begun 1308 and completed in around 1321, shortly before the author's death. It is widely considered the pre-eminent work in Italian literature and ...

'' to illustrate universals of presentation and persuasion in religious ethics texts. Exemplifying goblet language in the ''

Inferno Inferno may refer to: * Hell, an afterlife place of suffering * Conflagration, a large uncontrolled fire Film * ''L'Inferno'', a 1911 Italian film * Inferno (1953 film), ''Inferno'' (1953 film), a film noir by Roy Ward Baker * Inferno (1973 fi ...

'', Dante presents "dazzling shifts in locale, perspective, and even physical structure", as in the case of

Pietro della Vigna Pietro della Vigna (also Pier delle Vigne, Petrus de Vineas or de Vineis; Capua, ca. 1190 – Pisa, 1249) was an Italian jurist and diplomat, who acted as chancellor and secretary (logothete) to Emperor Frederick II. Falsely accused of ''lèse-ma ...

's appearance as a bush, or

Vanni Fucci Vanni Fucci di Pistoia is a minor character in '' Inferno'', the first part of Dante Alighieri's epic poem the ''Divine Comedy'', appearing in Cantos XXIV & XXV. He was a thief who lived in Pistoia, as his name ("di Pistoia" meaning "of Pistoia") ...

's metamorphoses into a snake. Kim-Chong Chong, professor of comparative philosophy at

Hong Kong University of Science and Technology The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology (HKUST) is a public research university in Clear Water Bay Peninsula, New Territories, Hong Kong. Founded in 1991 by the British Hong Kong Government, it was the territory's third institution ...

, says the paradoxical nature of "goblet words" teaches one to "be open to multivalence, and not attached to specific views", and explains this in terms of Donald Davidson's (1978) philosophical hypothesis that a metaphor has no cognitive content beyond its literal meaning, and thus Zhuangzi is able to "stay free of (being attached to) any distinctions". Bouteille en forme d'amphore, Banpo

Daniel Fried, professor of Chinese and comparative literature at the

University of Alberta The University of Alberta, also known as U of A or UAlberta, is a public research university located in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. It was founded in 1908 by Alexander Cameron Rutherford,"A Gentleman of Strathcona – Alexander Cameron Rutherfor ...

, combined Chinese textual and archeological evidence to propose a "speculative history" of the Zhuangzian "goblet words"

trope Trope or tropes may refer to: Arts, entertainment, and media * Trope (cinema), a cinematic convention for conveying a concept * Trope (literature), a figure of speech or common literary device * Trope (music), any of a variety of different things ...

as a reference to an ancient irrigation device known as the (, "tipping vessel", cf. Lau above), which tipped and spilled its contents once it reached capacity. In the 1950s, Chinese archeologists excavating the

Banpo Banpo is an archaeological site discovered in 1953 by Shi Xingbang, and located in the Yellow River Valley just east of Xi'an, China. It contains the remains of several well organized Neolithic settlements, like Jiangzhai, carbon dated t ...

site in

Shaanxi Shaanxi (alternatively Shensi, see #Name, § Name) is a landlocked Provinces of China, province of China. Officially part of Northwest China, it borders the province-level divisions of Shanxi (NE, E), Henan (E), Hubei (SE), Chongqing (S), Sichu ...

discovered narrow-mouthed, narrow-bottomed

amphora An amphora (; grc, ἀμφορεύς, ''amphoreús''; English plural: amphorae or amphoras) is a type of container with a pointed bottom and characteristic shape and size which fit tightly (and therefore safely) against each other in storag ...

jugs dating from Neolithic

Yangshao culture The Yangshao culture (仰韶文化, pinyin: Yǎngsháo wénhuà) was a Neolithic culture that existed extensively along the middle reaches of the Yellow River in China from around 5000 BC to 3000 BC. The culture is named after the Yangsh ...

(c. 5000-c. 4000 BCE). One researcher first identified this particular shape of narrow-bottomed jug as the referent in both the passage on the , and the Guo Xiang commentary on the . The use of the vessel in irrigation "was driven by its ability to deliver a constant, low-flow stream of water, without the attention of the farmer, who held strings attached to the handles while the jugs tipped over of themselves". Fried's agricultural reading of as meaning "tipping-vessel words" instead of "goblet words" explains several hermeneutical problems with the context. For instance, the word (, "spread out far and wide") is inappropriate to the goblet metaphor, and would be an "awful mess if meant to describe alcohol". It is figuratively translated as "effusive elaboration" in the sentence "Consequently, there is effusive elaboration so that they may live out their years . However, if refers to a tipping-vessel anciently used for irrigation, then is a natural extension of the basic metaphor. "Spreading out" water over an entire field is simply the definition of irrigation. Fried asks what Zhuangzian words could be irrigating and answers (, "seeds"). "The myriad things are all from seeds, and they succeed each other because of their different forms " This abstruse metaphor of all objects as seeds makes little sense in the context of wine goblets, but it is "entirely sensible if one has been speaking of agriculture from the beginning". A final example is that Confucius' disciples fill the vessel with water, not wine. The religious studies scholar Jennifer R. Rapp identifies the "three kinds of language" in the as a "chorus-like" discursive strategy comparable with the

Greek chorus A Greek chorus, or simply chorus ( grc-gre, χορός, chorós), in the context of ancient Greek tragedy, comedy, satyr plays, and modern works inspired by them, is a homogeneous, non-individualised group of performers, who comment with a collect ...

' ''

The Bacchae ''The Bacchae'' (; grc-gre, Βάκχαι, ''Bakchai''; also known as ''The Bacchantes'' ) is an ancient Greek tragedy, written by the Athenian playwright Euripides during his final years in Macedonia, at the court of Archelaus I of Macedon. ...

''. "Goblet language", for instance, deflects attention from the exemplar sage figure

Zhuang Zhou Zhuang Zhou (), commonly known as Zhuangzi (; ; literally "Master Zhuang"; also rendered in the Wade–Giles romanization as Chuang Tzu), was an influential Chinese philosopher who lived around the 4th century BCE during the Warring States ...

, while also "dissolving the static notion of authorial position or authority", which Wang calls the "structural disappearance of the author the shift and multiplying of meanings and viewpoints". In the ''Bacchae'', the chorus is certainly in the shadow of the authority

Dionysus In ancient Greek religion and myth, Dionysus (; grc, Διόνυσος ) is the god of the grape-harvest, winemaking, orchards and fruit, vegetation, fertility, insanity, ritual madness, religious ecstasy, festivity, and theatre. The Romans ...

, which creates a third voice in relation to the audience, allowing them to enter the world of the play. Youru Wang, professor of Religion Studies at

Rowan University Rowan University is a public research university in Glassboro, New Jersey, with a medical campus in Stratford and medical and academic campuses in Camden. It was founded in 1923 as Glassboro Normal School on a site donated by 107 residents. ...

, describes "goblet words", "They adapt to and follow along with changes in things and people. They are not fixed signifiers or signifieds. Therefore, though they seem outlandish or absurd, deviating from common sense or formal logic, they are in harmony with what is natural (what is spontaneously so), with the flux of all things and circumstances." "Goblet communication" is a type of indirect communication (a central theme in

Søren Kierkegaard Søren Aabye Kierkegaard ( , , ; 5 May 1813 – 11 November 1855) was a Danish theologian, philosopher, poet, social critic, and religious author who is widely considered to be the first existentialist philosopher. He wrote critical texts on ...

's '' Practice in Christianity''), broadly defined as "listener- or reader-oriented, and non-

teleological Teleology (from and )Partridge, Eric. 1977''Origins: A Short Etymological Dictionary of Modern English'' London: Routledge, p. 4187. or finalityDubray, Charles. 2020 912Teleology" In ''The Catholic Encyclopedia'' 14. New York: Robert Appleton ...

; it assumes an interactive relation between the speaker and the listener; it abandons the

correspondence theory In metaphysics and philosophy of language, the correspondence theory of truth states that the truth or falsity of a statement is determined only by how it relates to the world and whether it accurately describes (i.e., corresponds with) that world ...

of language; it is concerned with the existentio-practical dimension of what is communicated; it considers meaning open-ended and indeterminate"; indirect communication particularly adopts indirect language, such as metaphor, denegation, paradox, and irony.

E. N. Anderson Eugene N. Anderson (born 1941) is a professor of anthropology ''emeritus'' at the University of California, Riverside. Career Anderson received a B.A. in anthropology from Harvard College in 1962 and a Ph.D. in anthropology from the University o ...

, professor of anthropology at

University of California, Riverside The University of California, Riverside (UCR or UC Riverside) is a public land-grant research university in Riverside, California. It is one of the ten campuses of the University of California system. The main campus sits on in a suburban distr ...

, proposes that the unstable was originally some kind of

drinking horn A drinking horn is the horn of a bovid used as a drinking vessel. Drinking horns are known from Classical Antiquity, especially the Balkans, and remained in use for ceremonial purposes throughout the Middle Ages and the Early Modern period in ...

rhyton A rhyton (plural rhytons or, following the Greek plural, rhyta) is a roughly conical container from which fluids were intended to be drunk or to be poured in some ceremony such as libation, or merely at table. A rhyton is typically formed in t ...

designed to tip over when set down, so that anyone who drinks from one must empty it. The () "horn radical" semantic indicator in () and () above is a recurring element in ancient Chinese wine vessel names, such as the (, "zoomorphic covered wine pitcher"). Besides this character's usual "horn" reading, it was also pronounced () as the name of an ancient wine vessel similar to a (), except the spout and brim extension are identical and there is a cover. The

University of Delaware The University of Delaware (colloquially UD or Delaware) is a public land-grant research university located in Newark, Delaware. UD is the largest university in Delaware. It offers three associate's programs, 148 bachelor's programs, 121 mas ...

professor of Asian and comparative philosophy Alan Fox says the willingness to surrender one's own perspective to the perspective of another person is "a prerequisite to effective communication", and quotes the final passage in chapter 26, "A fish-trap is for catching fish; once you've caught the fish, you can forget about the trap. .... Words are for catching ideas; once you've caught the idea, you can forget about the words. Where can I find a person who knows how to forget about words so that I can have a few words with him?".

To forget words is to surrender allegiance to one's own perspectives and sense of meaning. This is difficult because we tend to identify strongly with our familiar perspectives. We take them personally. Forgetting words involves really listening to the other. A person capable of this is a desirable partner for conversation, because he or she has no preferences at stake and will not insist on projecting any inappropriate meanings onto our statements—unlike most people who seem all too eager to misinterpret each other. A person who has forgotten words will come to terms with us, understand us as we understand ourselves by using language without being hampered by or fixated on any favorite or popular sage. This flexibility limits misunderstanding and, since clarity is a privileged cognitive mode, is thus of value.

Fox describes (, "goblet words"), which '' Mathews' Chinese–English Dictionary'' translates as "all-embracing expressions, words which flow from the heart like water overflowing from a goblet" (930), to be the "most sophisticated use of language" in the . Chapter 27 recommends to, "Speak nonspeech." If you speak nonspeech, you may speak till the end of your life without ever having spoken. If till the end of your life you do not speak, you will never have failed to speak.". Accordingly, "This kind of mercurial or fluid language use empties itself of meaning in order to refill itself; it adapts to, and follows along with, the fluctuating nature of the world, communicating meaning in any given circumstance more accurately and appropriately". The

Lingnan University Lingnan University (LN/LU), formerly called Lingnan College, is a public liberal arts university in Hong Kong. It aims to provide students with an education in the liberal arts tradition and has joined the Global Liberal Arts Alliance since ...

philosophy professor Wai-wai Chiu analyzes three logical forms of Zhuangzian "goblet words", all of which serve to preserve indeterminacy and prevent reaching a definitive answer to any conceptual disputation. First, dilemmatic questions in the are typically "Is X acceptable? Or is not-X acceptable?", where the

excluded middle In logic, the law of excluded middle (or the principle of excluded middle) states that for every proposition, either this proposition or its negation is true. It is one of the so-called three laws of thought, along with the law of noncontradi ...

suggests that we can accept either one, but not both. For example, "Speech is not merely the blowing of air. Speech is intended to say something, but what is spoken may not necessarily be valid. If it is not valid, has anything actually been spoken? Or has speech never actually occurred? We may consider speech to be distinct from the chirps of hatchlings, but is there really any difference between them?". Second, oxymorons combining contradictory terms are common in the text. For instance, "The great Way is ineffable, great disputation is speechless, great humaneness is inhumane, great honesty is immodest, and great bravery is not aggressive.". Third, "double denial" is a type of goblet word that doubts or criticizes a view and then immediately doubts its original doubt, and which, unlike an oxymoron, can have a consistent literal reading. Master Tall Tree tells Master Timid Magpie, "Someone who dreams of drinking wine at a cheerful banquet may wake up crying the next morning. Someone who dreams of crying may go off the next morning to enjoy the sport of the hunt. When we are in the midst of a dream, we do not know it's a dream. Sometimes we may even try to interpret our dreams while we are dreaming, but then we awake and realize it was a dream. Only after one is greatly awakened does one realize that it was all a great dream, while the fool thinks that he is awake and presumptuously aware.". The employs goblet words to display various theses without arriving at a definite conclusion. Chiu discusses the effects of reading Zhuangzian goblet words. Readers may become more open-minded by "reflecting on all sides of any distinction made in the text and through their awareness of the absence of an ultimate answer".

University of Hawaii at Manoa A university () is an institution of higher (or tertiary) education and research which awards academic degrees in several academic disciplines. Universities typically offer both undergraduate and postgraduate programs. In the United States, t ...

researcher Jeremy Griffith compares Zhuangzian "spillover-goblet words" with

's image of "leaky-pots" symbolizing the impossibility of language in a state of flux. In the ''

Cratylus Cratylus ( ; grc, Κρατύλος, ''Kratylos'') was an ancient Athenian philosopher from the mid-late 5th century BCE, known mostly through his portrayal in Plato's dialogue '' Cratylus''. He was a radical proponent of Heraclitean philosophy ...

'', Plato rejects the

Heraclitean Heraclitus of Ephesus (; grc-gre, Ἡράκλειτος , "Glory of Hera"; ) was an ancient Greek pre-Socratic philosopher from the city of Ephesus, which was then part of the Persian Empire. Little is known of Heraclitus's life. He wrote a ...

hypothesis that the world is in ever-present change. " rely no man of sense can put himself and his soul under the control of names, and trust in names and their makers to the point of affirming that he knows anything; nor will he condemn himself and all things and say that there is no health in them, but that all things are flowing like leaky pots, or believe that all things are just like people afflicted with catarrh, flowing and running all the time" (440). Griffith describes a spillover-goblet as a vessel hinged below its center of gravity, and as the vessel fills, its center of gravity raises above the level of the hinge, and it tips over, spilling its contents, only to right itself to be filled again. "In contrast with the image of the 'leaky pot,' forever losing its meaning, we have now the 'spillover-goblet,' emptying itself ''purposely'' so that it may always be refilled.". Wim De Reu,

National Taiwan University National Taiwan University (NTU; ) is a public research university in Taipei, Taiwan. The university was founded in 1928 during Japanese rule as the seventh of the Imperial Universities. It was named Taihoku Imperial University and served d ...

philosophy professor, argues against the general academic consensus that are a Zhuangzian literary stylistic form and suggests instead they are definite yet provisional everyday

speech acts Speech is a human vocal communication using language. Each language uses phonetic combinations of vowel and consonant sounds that form the sound of its words (that is, all English words sound different from all French words, even if they are th ...

that enable one to avoid or dissolve conflicts, thus reducing the risk of untimely death. Recent studies on tend to converge on three points. First, the notion refers to a Zhuangzian philosophical style that includes the use of paradox, denegation, dilemmatic questions, genre mixing, and seemingly unconnected passages. Second, are characterized by instability or indeterminacy.E.g., and . And third, they create an openness that potentially transforms the reader's personality as well as his or her understanding of the world. The author says it is unfortunate that recent literature on "goblet words" has not given much attention to (, "to live out your years") because it is identified as the main function of . Chapter 27 describes with the phrases (, tr. "live out their years") in "Impromptu words pour forth every day and harmonize within the framework of nature. Consequently, there is effusive elaboration so that they may live out their years."; and (, "last long") in "If it were not for the impromptu words that pour forth every day and harmonize within the framework of nature, who could last long?". De Reu prototypically describes "goblet words":

''Zhiyan'' are simple-form verbal utterances located on the level of everyday human interaction (what they are); by virtue of being both provisional and definite, they adapt to the unambiguous position of an opponent in a dispute (how they work); by thus removing the source of conflict, they reduce the risk of untimely death and allow the language user to complete his natural life span in peaceful coexistence with others (the function they perform).

Physagorian Pythagoras Greedy Tantalus cup 05

Christopher C. Kirby, professor of philosophy at

Eastern Washington University Eastern Washington University (EWU) is a public university in Cheney, Washington. It also offers programs at a campus in EWU Spokane at the Riverpoint Campus and other campus locations throughout the state. Founded in 1882, the university is ...

, interprets goblet words in terms of non-cognitive

moral realism Moral realism (also ethical realism) is the position that ethical sentences express propositions that refer to objective features of the world (that is, features independent of subjective opinion), some of which may be true to the extent that they ...

, a conception of truth largely unfamiliar to Western philosophical traditions, and introduces the phrase "tipping toward the truth" to characterize its distinctively metaphorical moral discourse. Textual passages suggest Zhuangzi believed that moral reals (i.e., attitude-independent norms) exist, but they are propositionally ineffable in a dynamic world. He employed "intentionally open-ended" goblet words as signposts pointing to the moral lessons he sought to convey, despite the factual inaccuracies of the words themselves. "These 'truths', which Zhuangzi's goblet words 'tip toward', might be accessed non-cognitively through attuning with the natural world, listening to one's body, and refining technical skill. The goal of these practices is the transformation of the self in harmony with the constant changes of nature – an emergent 'bringing forth' of normativity that cannot be put into words". Following the construal of Fried, Kirby says the name refers to the ancient () irrigation vessel, which tipped and spilled its contents once it reached capacity. Zhuangzian goblet words are drained of their content once their usefulness has been exceeded, like the ancient

Pythagorean cup A Pythagorean cup (also known as a Pythagoras cup, Greedy Cup, Cup of Justice or Tantalus cup) is a practical joke device in a form of a drinking cup, credited to Pythagoras of Samos. When it is filled beyond a certain point, a siphoning effect ...

, a practical-joke goblet, which when filled beyond a certain point, siphons its entire contents through the base.

References

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Revised into the following 2014 book chapter. * * * * * Footnotes

External links

*Koo Hao Wei (2018)
Zhuangzi's "Perfect Words" – A Variation of "Goblet Words"
''Nanyang Philosophy Review''. *Ray, Tyler (2012)
Putting the World Outside Himself: Metaphorical Meaning in the {{transl, zh, Zhuangzi
''Chrestomathy''. Chinese philosophy Chinese words and phrases Figures of speech Rhetorical techniques Taoist texts Zhou dynasty texts 3rd-century BC books