''Glyptapanteles'' is a
genus
Genus ( plural genera ) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of extant taxon, living and fossil organisms as well as Virus classification#ICTV classification, viruses. In the hierarchy of biological classification, genus com ...
of
endoparasitoid
In evolutionary ecology, a parasitoid is an organism that lives in close association with its host at the host's expense, eventually resulting in the death of the host. Parasitoidism is one of six major evolutionary strategies within parasiti ...
wasp
A wasp is any insect of the narrow-waisted suborder Apocrita of the order Hymenoptera which is neither a bee nor an ant; this excludes the broad-waisted sawflies (Symphyta), which look somewhat like wasps, but are in a separate suborder. Th ...
s found in Central and North America and New Zealand. The
larva
A larva (; plural larvae ) is a distinct juvenile form many animals undergo before metamorphosis into adults. Animals with indirect development such as insects, amphibians, or cnidarians typically have a larval phase of their life cycle.
The ...
e of the members of ''Glyptapanteles sp.'' are distinguished by their ability to manipulate their hosts into serving as
bodyguard
A bodyguard (or close protection officer/operative) is a type of security guard, government law enforcement officer, or servicemember who protects a person or a group of people — usually witnesses, high-ranking public officials or officers, w ...
s.
[
]
Reproduction
Female ''Glyptapanteles'' oviposit
The ovipositor is a tube-like organ used by some animals, especially insects, for the laying of eggs. In insects, an ovipositor consists of a maximum of three pairs of appendages. The details and morphology of the ovipositor vary, but typical ...
into caterpillar
Caterpillars ( ) are the larval stage of members of the order Lepidoptera (the insect order comprising butterflies and moths).
As with most common names, the application of the word is arbitrary, since the larvae of sawflies (suborder Sym ...
hosts. The caterpillar continues to grow and feed normally until the 4th or 5th instar
An instar (, from the Latin '' īnstar'', "form", "likeness") is a developmental stage of arthropods, such as insects, between each moult (''ecdysis''), until sexual maturity is reached. Arthropods must shed the exoskeleton in order to grow or ass ...
, whereupon up to 80 fully grown larvae emerge from its body to pupa
A pupa ( la, pupa, "doll"; plural: ''pupae'') is the life stage of some insects undergoing transformation between immature and mature stages. Insects that go through a pupal stage are holometabolous: they go through four distinct stages in their ...
te.Chrysodeixis chalcites
The tomato looper or golden twin-spot moth ''(Chrysodeixis chalcites)'' is a moth of the family Noctuidae, subfamily Plusiinae. It mainly lives in southern Europe, the Levant and tropical Africa, but can be seen migrating across much of Europe. ...
,'' ''Thyrinteina leucocerae'' (both pictured), and ''Acronicta rumicis
''Acronicta rumicis'', the knot grass moth, is a species of moth which is part of the genus ''Acronicta'' and family Noctuidae. It was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his 1758 10th edition of ''Systema Naturae''. It is found in the Palearct ...
''.
According to a study done in South Korea on the species ''G. liparidis,'' the parasitoid tends to prefer to feed on the second-instar ''A. rumicis'' larva, indicating that the stage of caterpillar life may have significant role in maximizing nutrient intake.
Behavior alteration
After the larvae of ''Glyptapanteles'' sp. emerge, the caterpillar takes up position near the cocoons of the pupae, arches its back, and ceases to move or feed. It will occasionally spin silk over the pupae. However, when disturbed, it begins to thrash violently. No longer inclined to eat, the affected caterpillar eventually dies. It has been demonstrated in experimental research (Grosman, et al.) that this behavior is to strike at and repel possible predators of the pupae, such as the shield bug
The Pentatomoidea are a superfamily of insects in the Heteroptera suborder of the Hemiptera order. As Hemiptera, they share a common arrangement of sucking mouthparts. The roughly 7000 species under Pentatomoidea are divided into 21 families (1 ...
''Supputius cincticeps
Asopinae are a subfamily of stink bugs (family Pentatomidae). They are predatory stink bugs that are useful as biological control agents against pests, even against other Pentatomid species, which are all herbivorous.
Genera
# '' Afrius'' ( ...
'', thus improving their survival odds. Only about one in twenty non-parasitized caterpillars responded in this fashion. In 60% of cases, the parasitized caterpillars successfully warded off these potential predators. Mortality rates for pupae not guarded by parasitized caterpillars were significantly higher. That it is of no demonstrated benefit to the caterpillar indicates that this is an adaptation on the part of ''Glyptapanteles''.
Mechanism
In the course of Grosman's research, it was discovered that not all larval ''Glyptapanteles'' emerge from their caterpillar host; one or two remain behind. Grosman has theorized that these larvae manipulate the host, foregoing their own chance at pupating in order to protect the brood.
Biocontrol
''G. flavicoxis'', ''G. porthetriae'' and ''G. militaris'' have been evaluated by the USDA
The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) is the federal executive department responsible for developing and executing federal laws related to farming, forestry, rural economic development, and food. It aims to meet the needs of com ...
as possible bio-control agents for containing the invasive gypsy moth (''Lymantria dispar
''Lymantria dispar'', also known as the gypsy moth or the spongy moth, is a species of moth in the family Erebidae. ''Lymantria dispar'' is subdivided into several subspecies, with subspecies such as ''L. d. dispar'' and ''L. d. japonica'' bei ...
'') population in the United States
The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territorie ...
. Research has indicated that ''Pseudaletia unipuncta'' hosts fed fresh perennial ryegrass (''Lolium perenne
''Lolium perenne'', common name perennial ryegrass, English ryegrass, winter ryegrass, or ray grass, is a grass from the family Poaceae. It is native to Europe, Asia and northern Africa, but is widely cultivated and naturalised around the world.
...
'') leaves are optimal for the mass-breeding of ''G. militaris''.
See also
*''Hymenoepimecis argyraphaga
''Hymenoepimecis argyraphaga'' is a Costa Rican parasitoid wasp whose host is the spider
Spiders (order Araneae) are air-breathing arthropods that have eight legs, chelicerae with fangs generally able to inject venom, and spinnerets t ...
'', a species of parasitoid wasp with similar larval ability to manipulate hosts to its own ends.
*''Ampulex compressa
The emerald cockroach wasp or jewel wasp (''Ampulex compressa'') is a solitary wasp of the family Ampulicidae. It is known for its unusual reproductive behavior, which involves stinging a cockroach and using it as a host for its larvae. It thus ...
'', or the "Emerald cockroach wasp", a wasp capable of debilitating cockroaches into serving as docile hosts for its eggs.
References
External links
Video
- A parasitized caterpillar, bent over the parasitoid pupae that have egressed from it, defends itself and the parasitoid pupae against a predator with violent head-swings, resulting in the predator being knocked off the twig.
Video
- A non-parasitized caterpillar hardly responds to a predator.
Photographs
of ''Glyptapanteles phytometrae'' in cocoon, larval, and pupal phases.
Photographs
of adult specimens at BOLD Systems Taxonomy Browser.
Article with video
at NewScientist.
*Taxonomic information a
UniProt Consortium
an
NCBI
{{Taxonbar, from=Q4039523
Microgastrinae
Braconidae genera
Suicide-inducing parasitism
Taxa named by William Harris Ashmead