![Saxo original 001](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Saxo_original_001.jpg)
''Gesta Danorum'' ("Deeds of the
Danes
Danes ( da, danskere, ) are a North Germanic ethnic group and nationality native to Denmark and a modern nation identified with the country of Denmark. This connection may be ancestral, legal, historical, or cultural.
Danes generally regard t ...
") is a patriotic work of Danish history, by the 12th-century author
Saxo Grammaticus
Saxo Grammaticus (c. 1150 – c. 1220), also known as Saxo cognomine Longus, was a Danish historian, theologian and author. He is thought to have been a clerk or secretary to Absalon, Archbishop of Lund, the main advisor to Valdemar I of Denmark ...
("Saxo the Literate", literally "the Grammarian"). It is the most ambitious literary undertaking of
medieval Denmark and is an essential source for the nation's early history. It is also one of the oldest known written documents about the
history of Estonia
The history of Estonia forms a part of the history of Europe. Humans settled in the region of Estonia near the end of the last glacial era, beginning from around 8500 BC.
Ancient Estonia: pre-history
Mesolithic Period
The region has been ...
and
Latvia.
Consisting of sixteen books written in Latin on the invitation of
Archbishop Absalon
Absalon (21 March 1201) was a Danish statesman and prelate of the Catholic Church who served as the bishop of Roskilde from 1158 to 1192 and archbishop of Lund from 1178 until his death. He was the foremost politician and church father of Denm ...
, ''Gesta Danorum'' describes Danish history and to some degree Scandinavian history in general, from prehistory to the late 12th century. In addition, ''Gesta Danorum'' offers singular reflections on European affairs in the
High Middle Ages
The High Middle Ages, or High Medieval Period, was the period of European history that lasted from AD 1000 to 1300. The High Middle Ages were preceded by the Early Middle Ages and were followed by the Late Middle Ages, which ended around AD 150 ...
from a unique Scandinavian perspective, supplementing what has been handed down by historians from Western and Southern Europe.
Books
The sixteen books, in prose with an occasional excursion into poetry, can be categorized into two parts: Books 1–9, which deal with
Norse mythology and semi-legendary Danish history, and Books 10–16, which deal with medieval history. Book 9 ends with
Gorm the Old
Gorm the Old ( da, Gorm den Gamle; non, Gormr gamli; la, Gormus Senex), also called Gorm the Languid ( da, Gorm Løge, Gorm den Dvaske), was ruler of Denmark, reigning from to his death or a few years later.Lund, N. (2020), p. 147 . The last three books (14–16), which describe Danish conquests on the south shore of the Baltic Sea and wars against
Slavic peoples
Slavs are the largest European ethnolinguistic group. They speak the various Slavic languages, belonging to the larger Balto-Slavic language, Balto-Slavic branch of the Indo-European languages. Slavs are geographically distributed throughout ...
(the
Northern Crusades
The Northern Crusades or Baltic Crusades were Christian colonization and Christianization campaigns undertaken by Catholic Christian military orders and kingdoms, primarily against the pagan Baltic, Finnic and West Slavic peoples around th ...
), are very valuable for the history of West Slavic tribes (
Polabian Slavs
Polabian Slavs ( dsb, Połobske słowjany, pl, Słowianie połabscy, cz, Polabští slované) is a collective term applied to a number of Lechitic ( West Slavic) tribes who lived scattered along the Elbe river in what is today eastern Germ ...
,
Pomeranians) and
Slavic paganism. Book 14 contains a unique description of the temple on the island of
Rügen
Rügen (; la, Rugia, ) is Germany's largest island. It is located off the Pomeranian coast in the Baltic Sea and belongs to the state of Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania.
The "gateway" to Rügen island is the Hanseatic city of Stralsund, where ...
.
Overview
Book 1
The first book is mostly Saxo's original work, sharing little with other primary works, but taking some inspiration from Ancient Greek epics. It very briefly covers the rule of the eponymous founder of the Danish nation, Dan, but also his sons
Humble and
Lother
Lotherus (Lother) was one of the earliest kings of Denmark according to Saxo Grammaticus's ''Gesta Danorum''.
Text
See also
*Heremod
Heremod (Proto-Norse: *''Harimōdaz' Latin form: Heremodius) is a legendary Danish king and a legendary kin ...
, and Dan's grandson,
Skiold, whose son,
Gram
The gram (originally gramme; SI unit symbol g) is a unit of mass in the International System of Units (SI) equal to one one thousandth of a kilogram.
Originally defined as of 1795 as "the absolute weight of a volume of pure water equal to th ...
is the first Danish king to be given some detail, his reign revolves around conquering Sweden and Finland, only to die in a battle. Most of the book deals with the adventures of
Hading, the son of Gram and
Finnish
Finnish may refer to:
* Something or someone from, or related to Finland
* Culture of Finland
* Finnish people or Finns, the primary ethnic group in Finland
* Finnish language, the national language of the Finnish people
* Finnish cuisine
See also ...
princess,
Signe. Here the adventure concerns the loss of Denmark to the Swedes as well as Hading's attempts to reclaim it with the help of giants and Odin. The book concludes with Hading's suicide after hearing of his friend's death.
Book 2
Follows adventurers of Hading's descendants, who perform cunning raids across the
Baltic Sea
The Baltic Sea is an arm of the Atlantic Ocean that is enclosed by Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Russia, Sweden and the North and Central European Plain.
The sea stretches from 53°N to 66°N latitude and from ...
and far as England, while encountering many supernatural events and being forced to solve disputes via
single combat
Single combat is a duel between two single warriors which takes place in the context of a battle between two armies.
Instances of single combat are known from Classical Antiquity and the Middle Ages. The champions were often combatants who repre ...
.
Book 3
Introduces
Amleth
Amleth (; Latinized as ''Amlethus'') is a figure in a medieval Scandinavian legend, the direct inspiration of the character of Prince Hamlet, the hero of William Shakespeare's tragedy ''Hamlet, Prince of Denmark''. The chief authority for the l ...
as a grandson of a Danish king, whose father was murdered by his uncle, the governor of
Jylland
Jutland ( da, Jylland ; german: Jütland ; ang, Ēota land ), known anciently as the Cimbric or Cimbrian Peninsula ( la, Cimbricus Chersonesus; da, den Kimbriske Halvø, links=no or ; german: Kimbrische Halbinsel, links=no), is a peninsula of ...
. Amleth pretends to be a fool in fear of his uncle who has married his mother.
Book 4
Deals with Amleth securing his place as the king of the Danes, and return to Britain where he ends up marrying a Britanian princess, whose father plots the demise of Amleth, and the queen of Scotland who is famous for murdering all her suitors.
Book 5
Focused on empire-building of
Frotho III Frotho III was a legendary king of Denmark. He was mentioned by Saxo Grammaticus in ''Gesta Danorum'' and in the Skjöldunga saga. Saxo's account of his reign is considered a historicized version of the Vana-god Frey and was particularly demonstra ...
and his brilliant Norwegian advisor,
Erick the Eloquent
The given name Eric, Erich, Erikk, Erik, Erick, or Eirik is derived from the Old Norse name ''Eiríkr'' (or ''Eríkr'' in Old East Norse due to monophthongization).
The first element, ''ei-'' may be derived from the older Proto-Norse ''* ain ...
. Ultimately Frotho ends up ruling over Britain, Scandinavia, the Slavs, and the Huns. Saxo makes many parallels to
Augustus
Caesar Augustus (born Gaius Octavius; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian, was the first Roman emperor; he reigned from 27 BC until his death in AD 14. He is known for being the founder of the Roman Pr ...
.
Book 6
Follows the adventurers of the legendary hero,
Starkad
''Starkad'' ( non, Starkaðr or ; Latin: ''Starcaterus''; in the Late Middle Ages also ''Starkodder''; modern Danish: ''Stærkodder'')The article ''Starkad'' in ''Nationalencyklopedin''. was either an eight-armed giant or the human grandson of ...
who is disappointed in the decadent ways of Frothi III's descendants.
Book 7
Is a collection of short and unrelated love stories, many of these ventures feature
shieldmaidens.
Book 8
Covers the famous
Battle of Brávellir, between
Harald Wartooth
Harald Wartooth or ''Harold Hiltertooth'' (Old Norse: Haraldr hilditǫnn; Modern Swedish and Danish: Harald Hildetand; Modern Norwegian: ''Harald Hildetann''; flourished 8th century) was a legendary king of Denmark who is mentioned in several ...
and
Sigurd Ring
Sigurd Ring (Old Norse: ''Sigurðr Hringr'', in some sources merely called ''Hringr'') according to legend was a king of the Swedes, being mentioned in many old Scandinavian sagas. According to these sources he was granted rulership over Sweden a ...
. Danish involvement in the
Saxon wars against
Charlemagne
Charlemagne ( , ) or Charles the Great ( la, Carolus Magnus; german: Karl der Große; 2 April 747 – 28 January 814), a member of the Carolingian dynasty, was King of the Franks from 768, King of the Lombards from 774, and the first ...
, voyages to
Biarmia, and the death of Starkad.
Book 9
The book deals with
and his rising empire, he appoints many of his sons to govern parts of his empire all the way from
Scotland
Scotland (, ) is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Covering the northern third of the island of Great Britain, mainland Scotland has a border with England to the southeast and is otherwise surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean to the ...
to
Scythia
Scythia (Scythian: ; Old Persian: ; Ancient Greek: ; Latin: ) or Scythica (Ancient Greek: ; Latin: ), also known as Pontic Scythia, was a kingdom created by the Scythians during the 6th to 3rd centuries BC in the Pontic–Caspian steppe.
Hi ...
.
History
Chronology
When exactly ''Gesta Danorum'' was written is the subject of numerous works; however, it is generally agreed that ''Gesta Danorum'' was not finished before 1208. The last event described in the last book (Book 16) is King
Canute VI
Canute VI (; c. 1163 – 12 November 1202) was King of Denmark (1182–1202).
Contemporary sources describe Canute as an earnest, strongly religious man.
Background
Canute VI was the eldest son of King Valdemar I and Sophia of Polotsk. H ...
of Denmark subduing
Pomerania
Pomerania ( pl, Pomorze; german: Pommern; Kashubian: ''Pòmòrskô''; sv, Pommern) is a historical region on the southern shore of the Baltic Sea in Central Europe, split between Poland and Germany. The western part of Pomerania belongs to ...
under Duke
Bogislaw I, in 1186. However the preface of the work, dedicated to Archbishop
Anders Sunesen
Anders Sunesen (also ''Andreas'', ''Suneson'', ''Sunesøn'', Latin: ''Andreas Sunonis'') (c. 1167 – 1228) was a Danish archbishop of Lund, Scania, from 21 March 1201, at the death of Absalon, to his own death in 1228.
He is the author ...
, mentions the Danish conquest of the areas north of the
Elbe
The Elbe (; cs, Labe ; nds, Ilv or ''Elv''; Upper and dsb, Łobjo) is one of the major rivers of Central Europe. It rises in the Giant Mountains of the northern Czech Republic before traversing much of Bohemia (western half of the Czech Re ...
in 1208.
Book 14, comprising nearly one-quarter of the text of the entire work, ends with
Absalon
Absalon (21 March 1201) was a Danish statesman and prelate of the Catholic Church who served as the bishop of Roskilde from 1158 to 1192 and archbishop of Lund from 1178 until his death. He was the foremost politician and church father of Denm ...
's appointment to archbishop in 1178. Since this book is so large and ''Absalon'' has greater importance than King
Valdemar I, this book may have been written first and comprised a work on its own. It is possible that Saxo then enlarged it with Books 15 and 16, telling the story of King Valdemar I's last years and King Canute VI's first years.
It is believed that Saxo then wrote Books 11, 12, and 13.
Svend Aagesen Svend Aggesen (or "Sven"; also known as ''Aggessøn'', ''Aggesøn'' or ''Aagesen'', in Latin ''Sveno Aggonis''; born around 1140 to 1150, death unknown) is the author of '' Brevis historia regum Dacie'', one of the first attempts to write a coherent ...
's history of Denmark, ''
Brevis Historia Regum Dacie'' (circa 1186), states that Saxo had decided to write about "The king-father and his sons," which would be King
Sweyn Estridson, in Books 11, 12, and 13. He would later add the first ten books. This would also explain the 22 years between the last event described in the last book (Book 16) and the 1208 event described in the preface.
Manuscripts
The original manuscripts of the work are lost, except for four fragments: the
Angers Fragment
The Angers Fragment (''Angersfragmentet'') are four parchment pages from dating from the 12th-century. They are one of the four fragments remaining of the original written by Saxo Grammaticus. This the only fragment attested to be of Saxo's own ...
,
Lassen Fragment
The Lassen Fragment, is a parchment page from c. 1275. It is one of the four fragments remaining of the original, or early copy of, Saxo's Gesta Danorum. Size is 40x27 cm. It consists of one page with two written sides.
History
It was found 186 ...
,
Kall-Rasmussen Fragment
The Kall-Rasmussen Fragment is a parchment page from . It is one of the four fragments remaining, or early copy of, the original Saxo's Gesta Danorum. Its size is about 19x11cm. It consists of two pages with four written sides.
History
Found in ...
and
Plesner Fragment
The Plesner Fragment is a parchment page from c. 1275. It is one of the four fragments remaining, or early copy of, the original Saxo Gesta Danorum. Size is 15x13cm. It consists of one page with two written sides.
History
Found in 1877 by ''C. ...
. The Angers Fragment is the biggest fragment, and the only one attested to be in
Saxo’s own handwriting. The other ones are copies from ca. 1275. All four fragments are in the collection of the
Danish Royal Library
The Royal Library ( da, Det Kongelige Bibliotek) in Copenhagen is the national library of Denmark and the university library of the University of Copenhagen. It is among the largest libraries in the world and the largest in the Nordic countries ...
in
Copenhagen
Copenhagen ( or .; da, København ) is the capital and most populous city of Denmark, with a proper population of around 815.000 in the last quarter of 2022; and some 1.370,000 in the urban area; and the wider Copenhagen metropolitan ar ...
, Denmark.
The text has, however, survived. In 1510–1512,
Christiern Pedersen
Christiern Pedersen (c. 1480 – 16 January 1554) was a Danish canon, humanist
Humanism is a philosophical stance that emphasizes the individual and social potential and agency of human beings. It considers human beings the starting ...
, a Danish translator working in Paris, searched Denmark high and low for an existing copy of Saxo’s works, which by that time was nearly all but lost. By that time most knowledge of Saxo’s work came from a summary located in ''
Chronica Jutensis
''Chronica Jutensis'' ( Danish: ''Jyske Krønike'' English: ''Jutland Chronicle'') also known as ''Continuatio compendii Saxonis'' or ''Chronica Danorum'', is a small Danish historical work from the middle of the 14th century, written in Latin. It ...
'', from around 1342, called ''
Compendium Saxonis Compendium Saxonis (also known as ''Abbreviatio Saxonis'') is a summary located in Chronica Jutensis. It contains a summary of Saxo’s ''Gesta Danorum'', about one-fourth the size of the original. It is written in Latin.
It is thought to have be ...
''. It is also in this summary that the name ''Gesta Danorum'' is found. The title Saxo himself used for his work is unknown.
Christiern Pedersen finally found a copy in the collection of Archbishop
Birger Gunnersen
Birger is a Scandinavian name from Old Norse, ''bjarga'', meaning "to help, to save, to protect". It is widely used in Norway as Birger but also as Børge. The Swedish variant of ''Birger'' would soon evolve into ''Börje'', however, the prior form ...
of
Lund, Skåne (Skåne is now part of
Sweden
Sweden, formally the Kingdom of Sweden,The United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names states that the country's formal name is the Kingdom of SwedenUNGEGN World Geographical Names, Sweden./ref> is a Nordic country located on ...
, but at the time was still part of Denmark), which he gladly lent him. With the help of printer
Jodocus Badius
__NOTOC__
Jodocus Badius (french: Josse Bade; es, Jodoco del Badia; 1462–1535), also known as , , and , was a pioneer of the printing industry, a renowned grammarian, and a pedagogue.
Life
Josse Badius was born in the village of Asse (form ...
, ''Gesta Danorum'' was refined and printed.
Printing
![Saxo Chr P front version 001](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/Saxo_Chr_P_front_version_001.jpg)
The first printed press publication and the oldest known complete text of Saxo’s works is Christiern Pedersen's Latin edition, printed and published by Jodocus Badius in Paris, France, on 15 March 1514 under the title of ''Danorum Regum heroumque Historiae'' ("History of the Kings and heroes of the Danes"). The edition features the following
colophon: ...''impressit in inclyta Parrhisorum academia Iodocus Badius Ascensius Idibus Martiis. MDXIIII. Supputatione Romana.'' (the
Ides of March
The Ides of March (; la, Idus Martiae, Late Latin: ) is the 74th day in the Roman calendar, corresponding to 15 March. It was marked by several religious observances and was notable in Rome as a deadline for settling debts. In 44 BC, it became ...
, 1514).
The full front page reads (with abbreviations expanded) in Latin:
''Danorum Regum heroumque Historiae stilo eleganti a Saxone Grammatico natione Zialandico necnon Roskildensis ecclesiae praeposito, abhinc supra trecentos annos conscriptae et nunc primum literaria serie illustratae tersissimeque impressae.''
English language:
''Histories of the Kings and heroes of the Danes, composed in elegant style by Saxo Grammaticus, a Zealand
Zealand ( da, Sjælland ) at 7,031 km2 is the largest and most populous island in Denmark proper (thus excluding Greenland and Disko Island, which are larger in size). Zealand had a population of 2,319,705 on 1 January 2020.
It is the 1 ...
er and also provost of the church of Roskilde
Roskilde ( , ) is a city west of Copenhagen on the Danish island of Zealand. With a population of 51,916 (), the city is a business and educational centre for the region and the 10th largest city in Denmark. It is governed by the administrative ...
, over three hundred years ago, and now for the first time illustrated and printed correctly in a learned compilation.''
Latin versions
The source of all existing translations and new editions is Christiern Pedersen's Latin ''Danorum Regum heroumque Historiae''. There exist a number of different translations today, some complete, some partial:
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Danish translations
* Christiern Pedersen, never published ca. 1540, Lost
* Jon Tursons, lost, never published ca. 1555
*
*
*
*
*
* , 2 volumes
English translations
*
*
*
*
* , Volume 1 includes books I-X and Volume 2 includes books XI-XVI.
Other translations
*
*
*
*
*
Russian
Russian(s) refers to anything related to Russia, including:
*Russians (, ''russkiye''), an ethnic group of the East Slavic peoples, primarily living in Russia and neighboring countries
*Rossiyane (), Russian language term for all citizens and peo ...
by Andrey Dosaev in two vols.]
''Gesta Danorum'' is also translated partially in other English, French language, French and German language, German releases.
Hamlet
Certain aspects of ''Gesta Danorum'' formed the basis for
William Shakespeare
William Shakespeare ( 26 April 1564 – 23 April 1616) was an English playwright, poet and actor. He is widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called England's nation ...
's play ''
Hamlet
''The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark'', often shortened to ''Hamlet'' (), is a tragedy written by William Shakespeare sometime between 1599 and 1601. It is Shakespeare's longest play, with 29,551 words. Set in Denmark, the play depicts ...
''. It is thought that Shakespeare never read ''Gesta Danorum'', and instead had access to an
auxiliary version of the tale describing the downfall of
Amleth
Amleth (; Latinized as ''Amlethus'') is a figure in a medieval Scandinavian legend, the direct inspiration of the character of Prince Hamlet, the hero of William Shakespeare's tragedy ''Hamlet, Prince of Denmark''. The chief authority for the l ...
, Prince of Denmark.
Saxo's version, told of in Books 3 and 4, is very similar to that of Shakespeare's ''Hamlet''. In Saxo's version, two brothers,
Orvendil and
Fengi are given the rule over
Jutland
Jutland ( da, Jylland ; german: Jütland ; ang, Ēota land ), known anciently as the Cimbric or Cimbrian Peninsula ( la, Cimbricus Chersonesus; da, den Kimbriske Halvø, links=no or ; german: Kimbrische Halbinsel, links=no), is a peninsula of ...
by King
Rørik Slyngebond of the Danes. Soon after, Orvendil marries King Rørik's daughter, Geruth (Gertrude in ''Hamlet''). Amleth is their first and only child.
Fengi becomes resentful of his brother's marriage, and also wants sole leadership of Jutland, so therefore murders Orvendil. After a very brief period of mourning, Fengi marries Geruth, and declares himself sole leader of Jutland. Eventually, Amleth avenges his father's murder and plans the murder of his uncle, making him the new and rightful King of Jutland. However, while Hamlet dies in Shakespeare's version just after his uncle's death, in Saxo's version Amleth survives and begins ruling his kingdom, going on to other adventures.
References
Sources
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**In two volumes : ;
e-text both volumes without appendixes or indices * , (table of contents in Danish).
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External links
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{{Authority control
12th-century history books
12th-century Latin books
Sources of Norse mythology
Sources on Germanic paganism
Danish chronicles
Danish non-fiction books
12th century in Denmark
Cultural depictions of Ragnar Lodbrok