The

Federal Republic of Germany Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It lies between the Baltic Sea and the North Sea to the north and the Alps to the south. Its sixteen constituent states have a total population of over 84 ...

(FRG) is a Central European country and member of the

European Union The European Union (EU) is a supranational union, supranational political union, political and economic union of Member state of the European Union, member states that are Geography of the European Union, located primarily in Europe. The u ...

, G4, G7, the

G20 The G20 or Group of 20 is an intergovernmental forum comprising 19 sovereign countries, the European Union (EU), and the African Union (AU). It works to address major issues related to the global economy, such as international financial stabil ...

, the Organizations for Economic Co-operation and Development and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (

NATO The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO ; , OTAN), also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental organization, intergovernmental Transnationalism, transnational military alliance of 32 Member states of NATO, member s ...

). It maintains a network of 229 diplomatic missions abroad and holds relations with more than 190 countries. As one of the world's leading industrialized countries it is recognized as a major power in European and global affairs.

History

The history of German foreign policy covers diplomatic developments and international history since 1871. Before 1866, Habsburg Austria and its

German Confederation The German Confederation ( ) was an association of 39 predominantly German-speaking sovereign states in Central Europe. It was created by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 as a replacement of the former Holy Roman Empire, which had been dissolved ...

were the nominal leader in German affairs, but the Hohenzollern Kingdom of Prussia exercised increasingly dominant influence in German affairs, owing partly to its ability to participate in German Confederation politics through its Brandenburg holding, and its ability to influence trade through its

Zollverein The (), or German Customs Union, was a coalition of States of the German Confederation, German states formed to manage tariffs and economic policies within their territories. Organized by the 1833 treaties, it formally started on 1 January 1 ...

network. The question of excluding or including Austria's influence was settled by the Prussian victory in the

Austro-Prussian War The Austro-Prussian War (German: ''Preußisch-Österreichischer Krieg''), also known by many other names,Seven Weeks' War, German Civil War, Second War of Unification, Brothers War or Fraternal War, known in Germany as ("German War"), ''Deutsc ...

in 1866. The

unification of Germany The unification of Germany (, ) was a process of building the first nation-state for Germans with federalism, federal features based on the concept of Lesser Germany (one without Habsburgs' multi-ethnic Austria or its German-speaking part). I ...

was made possible by the

Franco-Prussian War The Franco-Prussian War or Franco-German War, often referred to in France as the War of 1870, was a conflict between the Second French Empire and the North German Confederation led by the Kingdom of Prussia. Lasting from 19 July 1870 to 28 Janua ...

of 1870–71, in which the smaller states joined behind Prussia in a smashing victory over France. The

German Empire The German Empire (),; ; World Book, Inc. ''The World Book dictionary, Volume 1''. World Book, Inc., 2003. p. 572. States that Deutsches Reich translates as "German Realm" and was a former official name of Germany. also referred to as Imperia ...

was put together in 1871 by

Otto von Bismarck Otto, Prince of Bismarck, Count of Bismarck-Schönhausen, Duke of Lauenburg (; born ''Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck''; 1 April 1815 – 30 July 1898) was a German statesman and diplomat who oversaw the unification of Germany and served as ...

, who dominated German and indeed all of European diplomatic history until he was forced to resign in 1890.

Primary institutions and actors

Federal Cabinet

The three cabinet-level ministries responsible for guiding Germany's foreign policy are the Ministry of Defense, the Ministry of Economic Cooperation and Development and the Federal Foreign Office. In practice, most German federal departments play some role in shaping foreign policy in the sense that there are few policy areas left that remain outside of international jurisdiction. The bylaws of the Federal Cabinet (as delineated in Germany's Basic Law), however, assign the Federal Foreign Office a coordinating function. Accordingly, other ministries may only invite foreign guests or participate in treaty negotiations with the approval of the Federal Foreign Office.

Bundestag

With respect to foreign policy, the Bundestag acts in a supervisory capacity. Each of its committees – most notably the foreign relations committee – oversees the country's foreign policy. The consent of the Bundestag (and insofar as Länder are impacted, the Bundesrat) is required to ratify foreign treaties. If a treaty legislation passes first reading, it is referred to the Committee on Foreign Affairs, which is capable of delaying ratification and prejudice decision through its report to the Bundestag. In 1994, a full EU Committee was also created for the purpose of addressing the large flow of EU-related topics and legislation. Also, the committee has the mandate to speak on behalf of the Bundestag and represent it when deciding an EU policy position. A case in point was the committee's involvement regarding the European Union's eastern enlargement wherein the Committee on Foreign Affairs is responsible for relations with ECE states while the EU Committee is tasked with the negotiations.

NGOs

There is a raft of

NGOs A non-governmental organization (NGO) is an independent, typically nonprofit organization that operates outside government control, though it may get a significant percentage of its funding from government or corporate sources. NGOs often focus ...

in Germany that engage foreign policy issues. These NGOs include think-tanks (German Council on Foreign Relations), single-issue lobbying organizations (Amnesty International), as well as other organizations that promote stronger bilateral ties between Germany and other countries (Atlantic Bridge). While the budgets and methods of NGOs are distinct, the overarching goal to persuade decision-makers to the wisdom of their own views is a shared one. In 2004, a new German governance framework, particularly on foreign and security policy areas, emerged where NGOs are integrated into actual policymaking. The idea is that the cooperation between state and civil society groups increases the quality of

conflict resolution Conflict resolution is conceptualized as the methods and processes involved in facilitating the peaceful ending of Conflict (process), conflict and Revenge, retribution. Committed group members attempt to resolve group conflicts by actively co ...

development cooperation Development aid (or development cooperation) is a type of aid given by governments and other agencies to support the economic, environmental, social, and political development of developing countries. It is distinguished from humanitarian aid by ...

and

humanitarian aid Humanitarian aid is material and Humanitarian Logistics, logistic assistance, usually in the short-term, to people in need. Among the people in need are the homelessness, homeless, refugees, and victims of natural disasters, wars, and famines. Th ...

for fragile states. The framework seeks to benefit from the expertise of the NGOs in exchange for these groups to have a chance for influencing foreign policy.

Disputes

In 2001, the discovery that the terrorist cell which carried out the attacks against the United States on

11 September 2001 The September 11 attacks, also known as 9/11, were four coordinated Islamist terrorist suicide attacks by al-Qaeda against the United States in 2001. Nineteen terrorists hijacked four commercial airliners, crashing the first two into ...

, was based in Hamburg, sent shock waves through the country. The government of Chancellor

Gerhard Schröder Gerhard Fritz Kurt Schröder (; born 7 April 1944) is a German former politician and Lobbying, lobbyist who served as Chancellor of Germany from 1998 to 2005. From 1999 to 2004, he was also the Leader of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (S ...

backed the following U.S. military actions, sending

Bundeswehr The (, ''Federal Defence'') are the armed forces of the Germany, Federal Republic of Germany. The is divided into a military part (armed forces or ''Streitkräfte'') and a civil part, the military part consists of the four armed forces: Germ ...

troops to

Afghanistan Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central Asia and South Asia. It is bordered by Pakistan to the Durand Line, east and south, Iran to the Afghanistan–Iran borde ...

to lead a joint NATO program to provide security in the country after the ousting of the

Taliban , leader1_title = Supreme Leader of Afghanistan, Supreme leaders , leader1_name = {{indented plainlist, * Mullah Omar{{Natural Causes{{nbsp(1994–2013) * Akhtar Mansour{{Assassinated (2015–2016) * Hibatullah Akhundzada (2016–present) ...

. Nearly all of the public was strongly against America's 2003 invasion of Iraq, and any deployment of troops. This position was shared by the SPD/Green government, which led to some friction with the United States. In August 2006, the German government disclosed a botched plot to bomb two German trains. The attack was to occur in July 2006 and involved a 21-year-old Lebanese man, identified only as Youssef Mohammed E. H. Prosecutors said Youssef and another man left suitcases stuffed with crude propane-gas bombs on the trains. As of February 2007, Germany had about 3,000 NATO-led

International Security Assistance Force The International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) was a multinational military mission in Afghanistan from 2001 to 2014. It was established by United Nations Security Council United Nations Security Council Resolution 1386, Resolution 1386 ac ...

force in

as part of the War on Terrorism, the third largest contingent after the United States (14,000) and the United Kingdom (5,200). German forces are mostly in the more secure north of the country. However, Germany, along with some other larger European countries (with the exception of the UK and the Netherlands), have been criticised by the UK and Canada for not sharing the burden of the more intensive

combat operations Combat operations area - process is undertaken by armed forces during military campaigns, major operations, battles, and engagements to facilitate the setting of objectives, direction of combat, and assessment of the operation plan's success. Th ...

in southern Afghanistan.

Global initiatives

Humanitarian aid

Germany is the largest net contributor to the United Nations and has several development agencies working in Africa and the Middle East. The development policy of the Federal Republic of Germany is an independent area of German foreign policy. It is formulated by the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) and carried out by the implementing organisations. The German government sees development policy as a joint responsibility of the international community. It is the world's third biggest aid donor after the United States and France. Germany spent 0.37 per cent of its gross domestic product (GDP) on development, which is below the government's target of increasing aid to 0.51 per cent of GDP by 2010. The international target of 0.7% of GNP would have not been reached either.

Ecological involvement

International organizations

Germany is a member of the

Council of Europe The Council of Europe (CoE; , CdE) is an international organisation with the goal of upholding human rights, democracy and the Law in Europe, rule of law in Europe. Founded in 1949, it is Europe's oldest intergovernmental organisation, represe ...

European Space Agency The European Space Agency (ESA) is a 23-member International organization, international organization devoted to space exploration. With its headquarters in Paris and a staff of around 2,547 people globally as of 2023, ESA was founded in 1975 ...

, G4, G8,

International Monetary Fund The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is a major financial agency of the United Nations, and an international financial institution funded by 191 member countries, with headquarters in Washington, D.C. It is regarded as the global lender of las ...

, NATO, OECD,

Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) is a regional security-oriented intergovernmental organization comprising member states in Europe, North America, and Asia. Its mandate includes issues such as arms control, the p ...

, UN,

World Bank Group The World Bank Group (WBG) is a family of five international organizations that make leveraged loans to developing countries. It is the largest and best-known development bank in the world and an observer at the United Nations Development Group ...

and the

World Trade Organization The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an intergovernmental organization headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland that regulates and facilitates international trade. Governments use the organization to establish, revise, and enforce the rules that g ...

European Union

European integration has gone a long way since the

European Coal and Steel Community The European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) was a European organization created after World War II to integrate Europe's coal and steel industries into a single common market based on the principle of supranationalism which would be governe ...

(ECSC) and the Elysée Treaty. Peaceful collaborations with its neighbors remain one of Germany's biggest political objectives, and Germany has been on the forefront of most achievements made in European integration: *

Maastricht Treaty The Treaty on European Union, commonly known as the Maastricht Treaty, is the foundation treaty of the European Union (EU). Concluded in 1992 between the then-twelve Member state of the European Union, member states of the European Communities, ...

Most of the social issues facing European countries in general: immigration, aging populations, straining social-welfare and pension systems – are all important in Germany. Germany seeks to maintain peace through the "deepening" of integration among current members of the European Union member states * European Defence Force * Introduction of the single currency € Euro Germany has been the largest net contributor to EU budgets for decades (in absolute terms – given Germany's comparatively large population – not per capita) and seeks to limit the growth of these net payments in the enlarged union. *

European Constitution The Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe (TCE; commonly referred to as the European Constitution or as the Constitutional Treaty) was an unratified international treaty intended to create a consolidated constitution for the European ...

NATO

Under the doctrine introduced by the 2003 Defense Policy Guidelines, Germany continues to give priority to the transatlantic partnership with the United States through the

North Atlantic Treaty Organization The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO ; , OTAN), also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental transnational military alliance of 32 member states—30 European and 2 North American. Established in the aftermat ...

. However, Germany is giving increasing attention to coordinating its policies with the European Union through the Common Foreign and Security Policy.

UN

The German Federal Government began an initiative to obtain a permanent seat in the

United Nations Security Council The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is one of the six principal organs of the United Nations (UN) and is charged with ensuring international peace and security, recommending the admission of new UN members to the General Assembly, an ...

, as part of the

Reform of the United Nations Reform refers to the improvement or amendment of what is wrong, corrupt, unsatisfactory, etc. The modern usage of the word emerged in the late 18th century and is believed to have originated from Christopher Wyvill's Association movement, which ...

. This would require approval of a two-thirds majority of the member states and approval of all five Security Council veto powers. This aspiration could be successful due to Germany's good relations with the People's Republic of China and the Russian Federation. Germany is a stable and democratic republic and a G7 country which are also favourable attributes. The United Kingdom and France support German ascension to the supreme body. The U.S. is sending mixed signals. NATO member states, including Germany, decided not to sign the UN

treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons The Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons (TPNW), or the Nuclear Weapon Ban Treaty, is the first legally binding international agreement to comprehensively prohibit nuclear weapons with the ultimate goal being their total elimination. I ...

, a binding agreement for negotiations for the total elimination of

nuclear weapon A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from nuclear reactions, either fission (fission or atomic bomb) or a combination of fission and fusion reactions (thermonuclear weapon), producing a nuclear exp ...

s, supported by more than 120 nations.

Diplomatic relations

List of countries which the Federal Republic of Germany maintains diplomatic relations with:

Bilateral relations

Africa

Americas

Asia

Europe

; Balkans

The German government was a strong supporter of the enlargement of

. Germany was one of the first nations to recognize

Croatia Croatia, officially the Republic of Croatia, is a country in Central Europe, Central and Southeast Europe, on the coast of the Adriatic Sea. It borders Slovenia to the northwest, Hungary to the northeast, Serbia to the east, Bosnia and Herze ...

and

Slovenia Slovenia, officially the Republic of Slovenia, is a country in Central Europe. It borders Italy to the west, Austria to the north, Hungary to the northeast, Croatia to the south and southeast, and a short (46.6 km) coastline within the Adriati ...

as independent nations, rejecting the concept of

Yugoslavia , common_name = Yugoslavia , life_span = 1918–19921941–1945: World War II in Yugoslavia#Axis invasion and dismemberment of Yugoslavia, Axis occupation , p1 = Kingdom of SerbiaSerbia , flag_p ...

as the only legitimate political order in the Balkans (unlike other European powers, who first proposed a pro-

Belgrade Belgrade is the Capital city, capital and List of cities in Serbia, largest city of Serbia. It is located at the confluence of the Sava and Danube rivers and at the crossroads of the Pannonian Basin, Pannonian Plain and the Balkan Peninsula. T ...

policy). This is why

Serb The Serbs ( sr-Cyr, Срби, Srbi, ) are a South Slavic ethnic group native to Southeastern Europe who share a common Serbian ancestry, culture, history, and language. They primarily live in Serbia, Kosovo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia ...

authorities sometimes referred to "new German imperialism" as one of the main reasons for Yugoslavia's collapse. German troops participate in the multinational efforts to bring "peace and stability" to the

Balkans The Balkans ( , ), corresponding partially with the Balkan Peninsula, is a geographical area in southeastern Europe with various geographical and historical definitions. The region takes its name from the Balkan Mountains that stretch throug ...

. ; Central Europe Weimar triangle (France, Germany and Poland); Germany continues to be active economically in the states of Central Europe, and to actively support the development of democratic institutions. In the 2000s, Germany has been arguably the centerpiece of the European Union (though the importance of France cannot be overlooked in this connection).

Oceania

Notes

References

* Bark, Dennis L., and David R. Gress. ''A History of West Germany. Vol. 1: From Shadow to Substance, 1945–1963. Vol. 2: Democracy and Its Discontents, 1963–1991'' (1993), the standard scholarly history * Blumenau, Bernhard, 'German Foreign Policy and the 'German Problem' During and After the Cold War: Changes and Continuities'. in: B Blumenau, J Hanhimäki & B Zanchetta (eds), ''New Perspectives on the End of the Cold War: Unexpected Transformations?'' Ch. 5. London: Routledge, 2018. . * Brandenburg, Erich. ''From Bismarck to the World War: A History of German Foreign Policy 1870-1914'' (1927
online
* Buse, Dieter K., and Juergen C. Doerr, eds. ''Modern Germany: an encyclopedia of history, people and culture, 1871-1990'' (2 vol. Garland, 1998). * Clark, Claudia. ''Dear Barack: The Extraordinary Partnership of Barack Obama and Angela Merkel'' (2021) * Cole, Alistair. ''Franco-German Relations'' (2000) * Feldman, Lily Gardner. ''Germany's Foreign Policy of Reconciliation: From Enmity to Amity'' (Rowman & Littlefield; 2012) 393 pages; on German relations with France, Israel, Poland, and Czechoslovakia/the Czech Republic
excerpt
* Forsberg, Tuomas. "From Ostpolitik to ‘frostpolitik’? Merkel, Putin and German foreign policy towards Russia." ''International Affairs'' 92.1 (2016): 21-42
online
* Gaskarth, Jamie, and Kai Oppermann. "Clashing traditions: German foreign policy in a New Era." ''International Studies Perspectives'' 22.1 (2021): 84–105
online
* Geiss, Imanuel. ''German foreign policy, 1871–1914'' (1976) * Haftendorn, Helga. ''German Foreign Policy Since 1945'' (2006), 441pp * Hanrieder, Wolfram F. '' Germany, America, Europe: Forty Years of German Foreign Policy'' (1991) * Heuser, Beatrice. ''NATO, Britain, France & the FRG: Nuclear Strategies & Forces for Europe, 1949-2000'' (1997) 256pp * Hewitson, Mark. "Germany and France before the First World War: a reassessment of Wilhelmine foreign policy." ''English Historical Review'' 115.462 (2000): 570–606
in JSTOR
* Junker, Detlef, ed. ''The United States and Germany in the Era of the Cold War'' (2 vol 2004), 150 short essays by scholars covering 1945–199
excerpt and text search vol 1 excerpt and text search vol 2
* Kefferputz, Roderick and Jeremy Stern. "The United States, Germany, and World Order: New Priorities for a Changing Alliance." ''Atlantic Council: Issue Brief'' (2021
online
* Kimmich, Christoph. ''German Foreign Policy 1918-1945: A Guide to Research and Research Materials'' (2nd ed. Scholarly Resources, 1991) 264 pp. * Leitz, Christian. ''Nazi Foreign Policy, 1933-1941: The Road to Global War'' (2004) * Maulucci Jr., Thomas W. ''Adenauer's Foreign Office: West German Diplomacy in the Shadow of the Third Reich'' (2012
excerpt
* Oppermann, Kai. "National role conceptions, domestic constraints and the new 'normalcy' in German foreign policy: the Eurozone crisis, Libya and beyond." ''German Politics''; 21.4 (2012): 502–519. * Paterson, William E. "Foreign Policy in the Grand Coalition." ''German politics'' 19.3-4 (2010): 497–514. * Papayoanou, Paul A. "Interdependence, institutions, and the balance of power: Britain, Germany, and World War I." ''International Security'' 20.4 (1996): 42–76. * Schwarz, Hans-Peter. ''Konrad Adenauer: A German Politician and Statesman in a Period of War, Revolution and Reconstruction'' (2 vol 1995
excerpt and text search vol 2
* Schmitt, Bernadotte E. "Triple Alliance and Triple Entente, 1902-1914." ''American Historical Review'' 29.3 (1924): 449–473
in JSTOR
*Sontag, Raymond James. ''Germany and England: Background of Conflict, 1848-1898'' (1938) * Spang, Christian W. and Rolf-Harald Wippich, eds. ''Japanese-German Relations, 1895-1945: War, Diplomacy and Public Opinion'' (2006) * Weinberg, Gerhard L. ''The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany'' (2 vol, 1970–80). * Wright, Jonathan. ''Germany and the Origins of the Second World War'' (Palgrave Macmillan, 2007) 223pp
online review
* Young, William. ''German Diplomatic Relations 1871-1945: The Wilhelmstrasse and the Formulation of Foreign Policy'' (2006); how the foreign ministry shaped policy

World/European diplomatic context

* Albrecht-Carrié, René. ''A Diplomatic History of Europe Since the Congress of Vienna'' (1958), 736pp; a basic introduction that gives context to Germany's roles * Kaiser, David E. ''Economic Diplomacy and the Origins of the Second World War: Germany, Britain, France, and Eastern Europe, 1930-1939'' (Princeton UP, 2015). * Kennedy, Paul. ''The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000'' (1989
excerpt and text search
very wide-ranging, with much on economic power * Langer, William. ''An Encyclopedia of World History'' (5th ed. 1973), very detailed outline * Langer, William. ''European Alliances and Alignments 1870-1890'' (2nd ed. 1950); advanced coverage of Bismarckian system * Langer, William L. '' The Diplomacy of Imperialism 1890-1902'' (2 vol, 1935) * Macmillan, Margaret. ''The War That Ended Peace: The Road to 1914'' (2013) cover 1890s to 1914; see esp. ch 3–5, 8, * Mowat, R. B. ''A History of European Diplomacy 1815-1914'' (1922), basic introduction * Schroeder, Paul W. ''The Transformation of European Politics 1763-1848'' (1996) * Steiner, Zara. ''The Lights that Failed: European International History 1919-1933'' (2007
excerpt and text search
* Steiner, Zara. ''The Triumph of the Dark: European International History 1933-1939'' (2011
excerpt and text search
* Taylor, A. J. P. ''The Struggle for Mastery in Europe: 1848–1918'' (1957
excerpt and text search
advanced coverage of all major powers

External links

* ttps://web.archive.org/web/20060214165012/http://www.aicgs.org/events/2006/012306_summary.shtml The German Economy in the New Europe* ttps://web.archive.org/web/20060219121955/http://www.aicgs.org/Publications/PDF/policyrep7.pdf EU Enlargement and Transatlantic Relations* Bierling, Stephan. ''Die Außenpolitik der Bundesrepublik Deutschland: Normen, Akteure, Entscheidungen. 2. Auflage''. München: Oldenbourg, 2005 . * von Bredow, Wilfried. ''Die Außenpolitik der Bundesrepublik Deutschland: Eine Einführung''. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, 2006 .
Permanent Mission of Germany to the United Nations

Auswärtiges Amt

AICGS American Institute for Contemporary German Studies

SWP German Institute for International and Security Affairs
{{DEFAULTSORT:Foreign Relations of Germany