George Moses Horton (1798–after 1867), was an

African-American African Americans (also referred to as Black Americans and Afro-Americans) are an Race and ethnicity in the United States, ethnic group consisting of Americans with partial or total ancestry from sub-Saharan Africa. The term "African American ...

poet from North Carolina who was enslaved till the

Emancipation Proclamation The Emancipation Proclamation, officially Proclamation 95, was a presidential proclamation and executive order issued by United States President Abraham Lincoln on January 1, 1863, during the Civil War. The Proclamation changed the legal sta ...

reached North Carolina (1865). Horton is the first African-American author to be published after the United States gained independence. He is author of the first book of literature published in North Carolina and was known as the "Slave Poet"

Biography

Horton was born into

slavery Slavery and enslavement are both the state and the condition of being a slave—someone forbidden to quit one's service for an enslaver, and who is treated by the enslaver as property. Slavery typically involves slaves being made to perf ...

on William Horton's plantation in 1798 in

Northampton County, North Carolina Northampton County is a county located in the U.S. state of North Carolina. As of the 2020 census, the population was 17,471. Its county seat is Jackson. Northampton County is part of the Roanoke Rapids, NC Micropolitan Statistical Area, wh ...

. He was the sixth of ten children; the names of his parents are lost in records throughout time. When Horton was six years old (1797), William Horton relocated his family and slaves to a

Chatham County, North Carolina Chatham County ( )
, from the North Carolina Collection's website at the

University of North Carolina The University of North Carolina is the multi-campus public university system for the state of North Carolina. Overseeing the state's 16 public universities and the NC School of Science and Mathematics, it is commonly referred to as the UNC Sy ...

students, selling them for 25 cents or more. The students of UNC-Chapel Hill grew an interest in Horton due to his ability to sound verses and his desire for greater knowledge. The students also gave him many books: he tells us of "

Murray Murray may refer to: Businesses * Murray (bicycle company), an American manufacturer of low-cost bicycles * Murrays, an Australian bus company * Murray International Trust, a Scottish investment trust * D. & W. Murray Limited, an Australian who ...

's ''English Grammar'' and its accordant branches Murray's studies of other languages) Samuel Johnson's ''Dictionary'' in miniature, and also

Walker Walker or The Walker may refer to: People *Walker (given name) *Walker (surname) *Walker (Brazilian footballer) (born 1982), Brazilian footballer Places In the United States *Walker, Arizona, in Yavapai County *Walker, Mono County, California * ...

's and

homas In the Vedic Hinduism, a homa (Sanskrit: होम) also known as havan, is a fire ritual performed on special occasions by a Hindu priest usually for a homeowner (" grihastha": one possessing a home). The grihasth keeps different kinds of fire ...

Sheridan's , and parts of others. And other books of use they gave me, which I had no chance to peruse minutely, Milton's ''

Paradise Lost ''Paradise Lost'' is an epic poem in blank verse by the 17th-century English poet John Milton (1608–1674). The first version, published in 1667, consists of ten books with over ten thousand lines of verse (poetry), verse. A second edition fo ...

,''

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Thompson's ''Seasons,'' parts of Homer's ''

Iliad The ''Iliad'' (; grc, Ἰλιάς, Iliás, ; "a poem about Ilium") is one of two major ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. It is one of the oldest extant works of literature still widely read by modern audiences. As with the ''Odysse ...

'' and Virgil's '' Ænead'' (), ''Beauties of Shakespeare, Beauties of Byron,'' part of

Plutarch Plutarch (; grc-gre, Πλούταρχος, ''Ploútarchos''; ; – after AD 119) was a Greek Middle Platonist philosopher, historian, biographer, essayist, and priest at the Temple of Apollo in Delphi. He is known primarily for his ''P ...

, edidiahMorse's ''Geography'', '' The Columbian Orator'', ichardSnowden's ''History of the

merican ''Merican'' is an EP by the American punk rock band the Descendents, released February 10, 2004. It was the band's first release for Fat Wreck Chords and served as a pre-release to their sixth studio album ''Cool to Be You'', released the follow ...

Revolution'', dwardYoung's ''

Night Thoughts ''The Complaint: or, Night-Thoughts on Life, Death, & Immortality'', better known simply as ''Night-Thoughts'', is a long poem by Edward Young published in nine parts (or "nights") between 1742 and 1745. It was illustrated with notable engrav ...

'', and some others".

Caroline Lee Hentz Caroline Lee Whiting Hentz (June 1, 1800, Lancaster, Massachusetts – February 11, 1856, Marianna, Florida) was an American novelist and author, most noted for her defenses of slavery and opposition to the abolitionist movement. Her widely read ' ...

, author and playwriter, took an interest in Horton. Teaching him to write and improve his verses. Teaching Blacks to read and write was legal in North Carolina until 1836, when restrictions were increased because of fears about slave revolts. Hentz was highly influential in getting his poems, ''Liberty and Slavery'' and ''Slavery'' (1828), published to the ''Lancaster Gazette'' in April of 1828 and wrote in the preface an introductory note. In June of the same year, she sent a third Horton poem, ''On Poetry and Musick'' (1828) to be published by the ''Gazette'' also to be published. The three poems were renamed to be placed into his first collection, ''The Hope of Liberty'' (1829). Becoming known as a poet, Horton attempted unsuccessfully to earn enough money from his poetry to purchase his freedom. Sometime in the 1830s, he "married" (legal marriages were not permitted) Martha Snipes, an enslaved woman owned by Franklin Snipes in Chatham County. The couple had two children, Free and Rhody. Little else is known about the family.Page, Amanda. "George Moses Horton" in ''The North Carolina Roots of African American Literature: An Anthology '' (William L. Andrews, editor). The University of North Carolina Press, 2006: 46. Twice Horton attempted to have others aid in his freedom, In 1844 he wrote a letter to abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison and in 1852 he wrote another letter to Horace Greeley the editor of the

New York Daily Tribune The ''New-York Tribune'' was an American newspaper founded in 1841 by editor Horace Greeley. It bore the moniker ''New-York Daily Tribune'' from 1842 to 1866 before returning to its original name. From the 1840s through the 1860s it was the dom ...

and included a poem titled "''A Poet's Feeble Petion"'' which expressed his longing for freedom. Neither letters reached their recipient due to the messenger Horton entrusted not passing them along and discarding of them. At age 60, which means about 1858, he described himself as "Belonging to Hal Horton living now in Chatham County". In 1865, when

Union Union commonly refers to: * Trade union, an organization of workers * Union (set theory), in mathematics, a fundamental operation on sets Union may also refer to: Arts and entertainment Music * Union (band), an American rock group ** ''Un ...

troops arrived in his area. Under the

of 1863, they liberated all the enslaved in the states that had seceded. Horton befriended a young Union officer with that group, William H. S. Banks. He left Chapel Hill with Banks, traveling to

Philadelphia Philadelphia, often called Philly, is the largest city in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, the sixth-largest city in the U.S., the second-largest city in both the Northeast megalopolis and Mid-Atlantic regions after New York City. Sinc ...

in the free state of Pennsylvania. After the Civil War and finally becoming a free man, Horton continued to write poetry for local newspapers. His poem "Forbidden to Ride on the Street Cars" expressed his disappointment in the unjust treatment of Blacks after emancipation. Arriving in Philadelphia before the summer of 1866, he wrote Sunday school stories on behalf of friends who lived in the city. Disappointed with the racial discrimination he encountered in Philadelphia, Horton did succeed in emigrating to Bexley,

Liberia Liberia (), officially the Republic of Liberia, is a country on the West African coast. It is bordered by Sierra Leone to Liberia–Sierra Leone border, its northwest, Guinea to its north, Ivory Coast to its east, and the Atlantic Ocean ...

, arriving January 7, 1867. This is the last known reference to him. While later death dates are found in some recent publications, his death location, date, and burial are unknown.Johnson, Lonnell E. "George Moses Horton" in ''African American Authors, 1745-1945: Bio-bibliographical Critical Sourcebook'' (Emmanuel S. Nelson, editor). Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2000: 240. He may have returned to Philadelphia.

The Slave Poet

In 1828 a number of newspapers in North Carolina and beyond discussed Horton's work.Horton is believed to be the first Southern Black to publish poetry.Johnson, Lonnell E. "George Moses Horton" in ''African American Authors, 1745-1945: Bio-bibliographical Critical Sourcebook'' (Emmanuel S. Nelson, editor). Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2000: 239. Though he knew how to read, he published the book before he had learned how to write. As he recalled, "I fell to work in my head, and composed several undigested pieces."Hager, Christopher. ''Word by Word: Emancipation and the Act of Writing''. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2013: 69. Gmhortonsig

After Horton's first poem was published in the Lancaster, Massachusetts, ''Gazette'', his works were published in other newspapers, such as the ''Register'' in Raleigh, North Carolina, and ''

Freedom's Journal ''Freedom's Journal'' was the first African-American owned and operated newspaper published in the United States. Founded by Rev. John Wilk and other free Black men in New York City, it was published weekly starting with the 16 March 1827 issue. ...

'' in New York City.Page, Amanda. "George Moses Horton" in ''The North Carolina Roots of African American Literature: An Anthology '' (William L. Andrews, editor). The University of North Carolina Press, 2006: 45. Horton's poetic style was typical of contemporary European poetry and was similar to poems written by free white contemporaries, likely a reflection of his reading and his work for commission. He wrote both sonnets and ballads. His earlier works focused on his life in slavery. Such topics, however, were more generalized and not necessarily based on his personal experience. He referred to his life on "vile accursed earth" and the "drudg'ry, pain, and toil" of life, as well as his oppression "because my skin is black".O'Brien, Michael. ''Intellectual Life and the American South, 1810-1860''. The University of North Carolina Press, 2010: 181. His first collection, ''The Hope of Liberty'' (1829), was focused on the issues of slavery and bondage. He did not gain enough in sales from that book to purchase his freedom; in his second book, he mentions slavery only twice.Johnson, Lonnell E. "George Moses Horton" in ''African American Authors, 1745-1945: Bio-bibliographical Critical Sourcebook'' (Emmanuel S. Nelson, editor). Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2000: 241. The change in theme is also likely due to the more restrictive climate in the South in the years leading up to the Civil War. In 1845, Horton published another book of poetry, ''The Poetical Works of George M. Horton, The Colored Bard of North-Carolina, To Which Is Prefixed The Life of the Author, Written by Himself''. Newspapers took notice again in December–January 1849 – 1850, and advertisements for the book were printed in a Hillsborough newspaper from 1852 into 1853. Horton was given direct credit for some poems published in newspapers in 1857 and 1858. A short announcement/review of his last book, ''Naked Genius'' appeared in the Raleigh ''Daily Progress'' on 31 August 1865. His later works, especially those written after his emancipation, expressed rural and pastoral themes. Like other early Black American writers such as Jupiter Hammon and Phillis Wheatley, Horton was deeply influenced by the Bible and African-American religion. Horton gained the admiration of North Carolina Governor John Owen, influential newspapermen

Horace Greeley Horace Greeley (February 3, 1811 – November 29, 1872) was an American newspaper editor and publisher who was the founder and newspaper editor, editor of the ''New-York Tribune''. Long active in politics, he served briefly as a congressm ...

and

William Lloyd Garrison William Lloyd Garrison (December , 1805 – May 24, 1879) was a prominent American Christian, abolitionist, journalist, suffragist, and social reformer. He is best known for his widely read antislavery newspaper '' The Liberator'', which he found ...

, and numerous other Northern abolitionists. He was said to be an admirer of

Byron George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron (22 January 1788 – 19 April 1824), known simply as Lord Byron, was an English romantic poet and peer. He was one of the leading figures of the Romantic movement, and has been regarded as among the ...

, whose poetry he used as a model. The earliest known critical commentary on Horton's writing is from 1909 by University of North Carolina professor Collier Cobb. He dismissed Horton's antislavery themes, saying: "George never really cared for more liberty than he had, but was fond of playing to the grandstand.". In 2017 the only known essay by Horton, "Individual Influence", was published for the first time.

Poetry Collections

''The Hope of Liberty'' (1829)

This was Horton's first true attempt to buy his freedom. Most of the poems in the collection were themed around antislavery either indirect or directly. One was a thank you poem towards his publisher. Three previously published poems of were reworked and put into other poems in the collection. The editorial "Explanation" that opens ''The Hope of Freedom'' speaks of Horton's desire to emigrate to the new colony of

; the collection was published so as to encourage donations.

The Museum (never published)

Professor William Green of UNC-Chapel Hill, was editing the manuscript but the collection as a whole as never published. Many poems instead were published elsewhere or in his following collections.

Poetical Works (1845)

Published in Raleigh, North Carolina, this collection consisted of 45 poems, none directly about being enslaved or slavery in general. The reason for this was Horton expressed he was no longer inspired to write about slavery. Also due to North Carolina being more actively pro-slavery nearing the Civil War, Horton believed a collection similar to his first would not be published.

The Naked Genius: The Colored Bard of North-Carolina (1865)

Horton wrote 132 poems between the years 1820 - 1865 which were compiled into this collection. Forty-three poems were reprinted from previous collections or those already published in newspapers, in large, the theme of the collection was to thank his sponsors and those helping to give him his freedom, including President Lincoln and Union Army Generals. Horton hoped this collection would set him apart from the title of Slave Poet and give him distinction from his poetry. As well as further prove the capability of Black men. Georgemoseshortonplaque

Horton "firsts"

* The first African American to publish a book in the United States. * The first published North Carolina author of literature. * The first enslaved American to publish a book. * The first American slave to protest his bondage in verse * The first African American to publish a book in the South; the only slave to earn a significant income by selling his poems; the only poet of any race to produce a book of poems before he could write; and the only slave to publish two volumes of poetry while in bondage and another shortly after emancipation."

Legacy

Building towards his remembrance, biographies began to appear. The first was by Kemp Plummer Battle in May 1888, at that time President of the University of North Carolina.

J. Donald Cameron James Donald Cameron (May 14, 1833 – August 30, 1918) was an American politician from Pennsylvania who served as Secretary of War under President Ulysses S. Grant and in the United States Senate for nearly twenty years. In May, 1876 Cameron was ...

noted Horton among notable North Carolina poets in 1890, in a speech that was reported in several newspapers. Battle reprised his thoughts on Horton in his history of the university, published in 1907. In 1909 UNC professor Collier Cobb wrote a paper on Horton, which he published in 1925 at his own expense. Horton was remembered at the University of North Carolina on the occasion of the visit of

James Weldon Johnson James Weldon Johnson (June 17, 1871June 26, 1938) was an American writer and civil rights activist. He was married to civil rights activist Grace Nail Johnson. Johnson was a leader of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored Peop ...

. The centennial of his first book was noted in the ''

New York Age ''The New York Age'' was a weekly newspaper established in 1887. It was widely considered one of the most prominent African-American newspapers of its time.

'' after it was noted in Greensboro. *In 1927

Winston-Salem, North Carolina Winston-Salem is a city and the county seat of Forsyth County, North Carolina, United States. In the 2020 census, the population was 249,545, making it the second-largest municipality in the Piedmont Triad region, the 5th most populous city in N ...

, opened a segregated library for Blacks in a

YWCA The Young Women's Christian Association (YWCA) is a nonprofit organization with a focus on empowerment, leadership, and rights of women, young women, and girls in more than 100 countries. The World office is currently based in Geneva, Swi ...

building; it was named for George Moses Horton. *In the 1930s, A Horton School, for Black children, opened in Pittsboro, North Carolina. It later became Horton High School. After integration in the 1970s, it became Horton Middle School. *In June 1978, North Carolina Governor

Jim Hunt James Baxter Hunt Jr. (born May 16, 1937) is an American politician and retired attorney who was the List of governors of North Carolina, 69th and 71st Governor of North Carolina (1977–1985, and 1993–2001). He is the longest-serving governo ...

declared June 28 “George Moses Horton Day.” *In the 1990s, North Carolina erected a historical marker about Horton at the intersection of U.S. 15/

501 __NOTOC__ Year 501 ( DI) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Avienus and Pompeius (or, less frequently, year 1254 '' Ab u ...

and Mount Gilead Church Road, Chatham County Road 1700 (35° 47.618′ N, 79° 5.992′ W). According to the marker, he lived about to the southeast. (See photo) *In 1996 Horton was inducted into the North Carolina Literary Hall of Fame. *Also in 1996, the George Moses Horton Society for the Study of African American Poetry was founded in Chapel Hill. *In 1997, Horton was named as Historic Poet Laureate of

Chatham County, North Carolina Chatham County ( )
, from the North Carolina Collection's website at the

Sherman, Joan R. "Horton, George Moses" in ''African American Lives'' (Henry Louis Gates and Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham, editors). New York: Oxford University Press, 2004: 415. *In 2006, the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill named a dormitory for George Moses Horton; it is believed to be the first university dormitory in the country to be named for a slave. *In 2015 author/illustrator Don Tate published ''Poet: The Remarkable Story of George Moses Horton'', an illustrated biography for children. The

Wilson Library The Louis Round Wilson Library is a library at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Completed in 1929, it served as the university's main library until 1984. Today, it houses several special collections. The dome rises 85 feet over the ...

at the University of North Carolina hosted the national launch of the book on September 3, 2015.

Published works

* * * * * *

References

External links

The George Moses Horton Project: Celebrating a Triumph of Literacy"
by Marjorie Hudson
The George Moses Horton Project
Chatham Arts Council
George Moses Horton listing
North Carolina Literary Hall of Fame *“Poet: The Remarkable Story of George Moses Horton," Tate, Don, author-illustrator; Peachtree Publishers; Atlanta, Georgia, 2015. Juvenile. . {{DEFAULTSORT:Horton, George Moses African-American poets American male poets 1798 births 1883 deaths People from Northampton County, North Carolina 19th-century American slaves People from Chatham County, North Carolina American expatriates in Liberia Poets from North Carolina People from Chapel Hill, North Carolina Literate American slaves African-American history of North Carolina African-American male writers