In
mathematics
Mathematics is an area of knowledge that includes the topics of numbers, formulas and related structures, shapes and the spaces in which they are contained, and quantities and their changes. These topics are represented in modern mathematics ...
, generalized functions are objects extending the notion of
function
Function or functionality may refer to:
Computing
* Function key, a type of key on computer keyboards
* Function model, a structured representation of processes in a system
* Function object or functor or functionoid, a concept of object-oriente ...
s. There is more than one recognized theory, for example the theory of
distributions. Generalized functions are especially useful in making
discontinuous function
In mathematics, a continuous function is a function such that a continuous variation (that is a change without jump) of the argument induces a continuous variation of the value of the function. This means that there are no abrupt changes in val ...
s more like
smooth function
In mathematical analysis, the smoothness of a function (mathematics), function is a property measured by the number of Continuous function, continuous Derivative (mathematics), derivatives it has over some domain, called ''differentiability cl ...
s, and describing discrete physical phenomena such as
point charge
A point particle (ideal particle or point-like particle, often spelled pointlike particle) is an idealization of particles heavily used in physics. Its defining feature is that it lacks spatial extension; being dimensionless, it does not take u ...
s. They are applied extensively, especially in
physics
Physics is the natural science that studies matter, its fundamental constituents, its motion and behavior through space and time, and the related entities of energy and force. "Physical science is that department of knowledge which r ...
and
engineering
Engineering is the use of scientific method, scientific principles to design and build machines, structures, and other items, including bridges, tunnels, roads, vehicles, and buildings. The discipline of engineering encompasses a broad rang ...
.
A common feature of some of the approaches is that they build on
operator aspects of everyday, numerical functions. The early history is connected with some ideas on
operational calculus Operational calculus, also known as operational analysis, is a technique by which problems in analysis, in particular differential equations, are transformed into algebraic problems, usually the problem of solving a polynomial equation.
History
Th ...
, and more contemporary developments in certain directions are closely related to ideas of
Mikio Sato
is a Japanese mathematician known for founding the fields of algebraic analysis, hyperfunctions, and holonomic quantum fields. He is a professor at the Research Institute for Mathematical Sciences in Kyoto.
Education
Sato studied at the Unive ...
, on what he calls
algebraic analysis
Algebraic analysis is an area of mathematics that deals with systems of linear partial differential equations by using sheaf theory and complex analysis to study properties and generalizations of functions such as hyperfunctions and microfunctio ...
. Important influences on the subject have been the technical requirements of theories of
partial differential equation
In mathematics, a partial differential equation (PDE) is an equation which imposes relations between the various partial derivatives of a Multivariable calculus, multivariable function.
The function is often thought of as an "unknown" to be sol ...
s, and
group representation
In the mathematical field of representation theory, group representations describe abstract groups in terms of bijective linear transformations of a vector space to itself (i.e. vector space automorphisms); in particular, they can be used to re ...
theory.
Some early history
In the mathematics of the nineteenth century, aspects of generalized function theory appeared, for example in the definition of the
Green's function
In mathematics, a Green's function is the impulse response of an inhomogeneous linear differential operator defined on a domain with specified initial conditions or boundary conditions.
This means that if \operatorname is the linear differenti ...
, in the
Laplace transform
In mathematics, the Laplace transform, named after its discoverer Pierre-Simon Laplace (), is an integral transform
In mathematics, an integral transform maps a function from its original function space into another function space via integra ...
, and in
Riemann
Georg Friedrich Bernhard Riemann (; 17 September 1826 – 20 July 1866) was a German mathematician who made contributions to analysis, number theory, and differential geometry. In the field of real analysis, he is mostly known for the first rig ...
's theory of
trigonometric series
In mathematics, a trigonometric series is a infinite series of the form
: \frac+\displaystyle\sum_^(A_ \cos + B_ \sin),
an infinite version of a trigonometric polynomial.
It is called the Fourier series of the integrable function f if the term ...
, which were not necessarily the
Fourier series
A Fourier series () is a summation of harmonically related sinusoidal functions, also known as components or harmonics. The result of the summation is a periodic function whose functional form is determined by the choices of cycle length (or ''p ...
of an
integrable function
In mathematics, an integral assigns numbers to functions in a way that describes displacement, area, volume, and other concepts that arise by combining infinitesimal data. The process of finding integrals is called integration. Along with ...
. These were disconnected aspects of
mathematical analysis
Analysis is the branch of mathematics dealing with continuous functions, limit (mathematics), limits, and related theories, such as Derivative, differentiation, Integral, integration, measure (mathematics), measure, infinite sequences, series (m ...
at the time.
The intensive use of the Laplace transform in engineering led to the
heuristic
A heuristic (; ), or heuristic technique, is any approach to problem solving or self-discovery that employs a practical method that is not guaranteed to be optimal, perfect, or rational, but is nevertheless sufficient for reaching an immediate, ...
use of symbolic methods, called
operational calculus Operational calculus, also known as operational analysis, is a technique by which problems in analysis, in particular differential equations, are transformed into algebraic problems, usually the problem of solving a polynomial equation.
History
Th ...
. Since justifications were given that used
divergent series
In mathematics, a divergent series is an infinite series that is not convergent, meaning that the infinite sequence of the partial sums of the series does not have a finite limit.
If a series converges, the individual terms of the series must ...
, these methods had a bad reputation from the point of view of
pure mathematics
Pure mathematics is the study of mathematical concepts independently of any application outside mathematics. These concepts may originate in real-world concerns, and the results obtained may later turn out to be useful for practical applications, ...
. They are typical of later application of generalized function methods. An influential book on operational calculus was
Oliver Heaviside
Oliver Heaviside FRS (; 18 May 1850 – 3 February 1925) was an English self-taught mathematician and physicist who invented a new technique for solving differential equations (equivalent to the Laplace transform), independently developed vec ...
's ''Electromagnetic Theory'' of 1899.
When the
Lebesgue integral
In mathematics, the integral of a non-negative function of a single variable can be regarded, in the simplest case, as the area between the graph of that function and the -axis. The Lebesgue integral, named after French mathematician Henri Lebe ...
was introduced, there was for the first time a notion of generalized function central to mathematics. An integrable function, in Lebesgue's theory, is equivalent to any other which is the same
almost everywhere
In measure theory (a branch of mathematical analysis), a property holds almost everywhere if, in a technical sense, the set for which the property holds takes up nearly all possibilities. The notion of "almost everywhere" is a companion notion to ...
. That means its value at a given point is (in a sense) not its most important feature. In
functional analysis
Functional analysis is a branch of mathematical analysis, the core of which is formed by the study of vector spaces endowed with some kind of limit-related structure (e.g. Inner product space#Definition, inner product, Norm (mathematics)#Defini ...
a clear formulation is given of the ''essential'' feature of an integrable function, namely the way it defines a
linear functional
In mathematics, a linear form (also known as a linear functional, a one-form, or a covector) is a linear map from a vector space to its field of scalars (often, the real numbers or the complex numbers).
If is a vector space over a field , the s ...
on other functions. This allows a definition of
weak derivative
In mathematics, a weak derivative is a generalization of the concept of the derivative of a function (''strong derivative'') for functions not assumed differentiable, but only integrable, i.e., to lie in the L''p'' space L^1( ,b.
The method of ...
.
During the late 1920s and 1930s further steps were taken, basic to future work. The
Dirac delta function
In mathematics, the Dirac delta distribution ( distribution), also known as the unit impulse, is a generalized function or distribution over the real numbers, whose value is zero everywhere except at zero, and whose integral over the entire ...
was boldly defined by
Paul Dirac
Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac (; 8 August 1902 – 20 October 1984) was an English theoretical physicist who is regarded as one of the most significant physicists of the 20th century. He was the Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at the Univer ...
(an aspect of his
scientific formalism Scientific formalism is a family of approaches to the presentation of science. It is viewed as an important part of the scientific method, especially in the physical sciences.
Levels of formalism
There are multiple levels of scientific formalism ...
); this was to treat
measures
Measure may refer to:
* Measurement, the assignment of a number to a characteristic of an object or event
Law
* Ballot measure, proposed legislation in the United States
* Church of England Measure, legislation of the Church of England
* Measu ...
, thought of as densities (such as
charge density
In electromagnetism, charge density is the amount of electric charge per unit length, surface area, or volume. Volume charge density (symbolized by the Greek letter ρ) is the quantity of charge per unit volume, measured in the SI system in co ...
) like genuine functions.
Sergei Sobolev
Prof Sergei Lvovich Sobolev (russian: Серге́й Льво́вич Со́болев) H FRSE (6 October 1908 – 3 January 1989) was a Soviet mathematician working in mathematical analysis and partial differential equations.
Sobolev introduc ...
, working in
partial differential equation theory, defined the first adequate theory of generalized functions, from the mathematical point of view, in order to work with
weak solution
In mathematics, a weak solution (also called a generalized solution) to an ordinary or partial differential equation is a function for which the derivatives may not all exist but which is nonetheless deemed to satisfy the equation in some precis ...
s of partial differential equations. Others proposing related theories at the time were
Salomon Bochner
Salomon Bochner (20 August 1899 – 2 May 1982) was an Austrian mathematician, known for work in mathematical analysis, probability theory and differential geometry.
Life
He was born into a Jewish family in Podgórze (near Kraków), then Aus ...
and
Kurt Friedrichs. Sobolev's work was further developed in an extended form by
Laurent Schwartz
Laurent-Moïse Schwartz (; 5 March 1915 – 4 July 2002) was a French mathematician. He pioneered the theory of distributions, which gives a well-defined meaning to objects such as the Dirac delta function. He was awarded the Fields Medal in ...
.
Schwartz distributions
The realization of such a concept that was to become accepted as definitive, for many purposes, was the theory of
distributions, developed by
Laurent Schwartz
Laurent-Moïse Schwartz (; 5 March 1915 – 4 July 2002) was a French mathematician. He pioneered the theory of distributions, which gives a well-defined meaning to objects such as the Dirac delta function. He was awarded the Fields Medal in ...
. It can be called a principled theory, based on
duality theory
In mathematics, a duality translates concepts, theorems or mathematical structures into other concepts, theorems or structures, in a one-to-one fashion, often (but not always) by means of an involution operation: if the dual of is , then the ...
for
topological vector space
In mathematics, a topological vector space (also called a linear topological space and commonly abbreviated TVS or t.v.s.) is one of the basic structures investigated in functional analysis.
A topological vector space is a vector space that is als ...
s. Its main rival, in
applied mathematics
Applied mathematics is the application of mathematical methods by different fields such as physics, engineering, medicine, biology, finance, business, computer science, and industry. Thus, applied mathematics is a combination of mathematical s ...
, is to use sequences of smooth approximations (the '
James Lighthill
Sir Michael James Lighthill (23 January 1924 – 17 July 1998) was a British applied mathematician, known for his pioneering work in the field of aeroacoustics and for writing the Lighthill report on artificial intelligence.
Biography
J ...
' explanation), which is more ''ad hoc''. This now enters the theory as
mollifier
In mathematics, mollifiers (also known as ''approximations to the identity'') are smooth functions with special properties, used for example in distribution theory to create sequences of smooth functions approximating nonsmooth (generalized) f ...
theory.
This theory was very successful and is still widely used, but suffers from the main drawback that it allows only
linear
Linearity is the property of a mathematical relationship (''function'') that can be graphically represented as a straight line. Linearity is closely related to '' proportionality''. Examples in physics include rectilinear motion, the linear r ...
operations. In other words, distributions cannot be multiplied (except for very special cases): unlike most classical
function space
In mathematics, a function space is a set of functions between two fixed sets. Often, the domain and/or codomain will have additional structure which is inherited by the function space. For example, the set of functions from any set into a vect ...
s, they are not an
algebra
Algebra () is one of the broad areas of mathematics. Roughly speaking, algebra is the study of mathematical symbols and the rules for manipulating these symbols in formulas; it is a unifying thread of almost all of mathematics.
Elementary a ...
. For example it is not meaningful to square the
Dirac delta function
In mathematics, the Dirac delta distribution ( distribution), also known as the unit impulse, is a generalized function or distribution over the real numbers, whose value is zero everywhere except at zero, and whose integral over the entire ...
. Work of Schwartz from around 1954 showed that was an intrinsic difficulty.
Some solutions to the multiplication problem have been proposed. One is based on a very simple and intuitive definition a generalized function given by Yu. V. Egorov
[
] (see also his article in Demidov's book in the book list below) that allows arbitrary operations on, and between, generalized functions.
Another solution of the multiplication problem is dictated by the
path integral formulation
The path integral formulation is a description in quantum mechanics that generalizes the action principle of classical mechanics. It replaces the classical notion of a single, unique classical trajectory for a system with a sum, or functional in ...
of
quantum mechanics
Quantum mechanics is a fundamental theory in physics that provides a description of the physical properties of nature at the scale of atoms and subatomic particles. It is the foundation of all quantum physics including quantum chemistry, ...
.
Since this is required to be equivalent to the
Schrödinger theory of
quantum mechanics
Quantum mechanics is a fundamental theory in physics that provides a description of the physical properties of nature at the scale of atoms and subatomic particles. It is the foundation of all quantum physics including quantum chemistry, ...
which is invariant under coordinate transformations, this property must be shared by path integrals. This fixes all products of generalized functions
as shown by
H. Kleinert and A. Chervyakov. The result is equivalent to what can be derived from
dimensional regularization
__NOTOC__
In theoretical physics, dimensional regularization is a method introduced by Giambiagi and Bollini as well as – independently and more comprehensively – by 't Hooft and Veltman for regularizing integrals in the evaluation of Fe ...
.
[
]
Algebras of generalized functions
Several constructions of algebras of generalized functions have been proposed, among others those by Yu. M. Shirokov
and those by E. Rosinger, Y. Egorov, and R. Robinson.
In the first case, the multiplication is determined with some regularization of generalized function. In the second case, the algebra is constructed as ''multiplication of distributions''. Both cases are discussed below.
Non-commutative algebra of generalized functions
The algebra of generalized functions can be built-up with an appropriate procedure of projection of a function
to its smooth
and its singular
parts. The product of generalized functions
and
appears as
Such a rule applies to both the space of main functions and the space of operators which act on the space of the main functions.
The associativity of multiplication is achieved; and the function signum is defined in such a way, that its square is unity everywhere (including the origin of coordinates). Note that the product of singular parts does not appear in the right-hand side of (); in particular,
. Such a formalism includes the conventional theory of generalized functions (without their product) as a special case. However, the resulting algebra is non-commutative: generalized functions signum and delta anticommute.
Few applications of the algebra were suggested.
Multiplication of distributions
The problem of ''multiplication of distributions'', a limitation of the Schwartz distribution theory, becomes serious for
non-linear
In mathematics and science, a nonlinear system is a system in which the change of the output is not proportional to the change of the input. Nonlinear problems are of interest to engineers, biologists, physicists, mathematicians, and many other ...
problems.
Various approaches are used today. The simplest one is based on the definition of generalized function given by Yu. V. Egorov.
Another approach to construct
associative differential algebra
In mathematics, differential rings, differential fields, and differential algebras are rings, fields, and algebras equipped with finitely many derivations, which are unary functions that are linear and satisfy the Leibniz product rule. A natur ...
s is based on J.-F. Colombeau's construction: see
Colombeau algebra. These are
factor spaces
:
of "moderate" modulo "negligible" nets of functions, where "moderateness" and "negligibility" refers to growth with respect to the index of the family.
Example: Colombeau algebra
A simple example is obtained by using the polynomial scale on N,
. Then for any semi normed algebra (E,P), the factor space will be
:
In particular, for (''E'', ''P'')=(C,, ., ) one gets (Colombeau's)
generalized complex numbers (which can be "infinitely large" and "infinitesimally small" and still allow for rigorous arithmetics, very similar to
nonstandard numbers). For (''E'', ''P'') = (''C
∞''(R),) (where ''p
k'' is the supremum of all derivatives of order less than or equal to ''k'' on the ball of radius ''k'') one gets
Colombeau's simplified algebra.
Injection of Schwartz distributions
This algebra "contains" all distributions ''T'' of '' D' '' via the injection
:''j''(''T'') = (φ
''n'' ∗ ''T'')
''n'' + ''N'',
where ∗ is the
convolution
In mathematics (in particular, functional analysis), convolution is a operation (mathematics), mathematical operation on two function (mathematics), functions ( and ) that produces a third function (f*g) that expresses how the shape of one is ...
operation, and
:φ
''n''(''x'') = ''n'' φ(''nx'').
This injection is ''non-canonical ''in the sense that it depends on the choice of the
mollifier
In mathematics, mollifiers (also known as ''approximations to the identity'') are smooth functions with special properties, used for example in distribution theory to create sequences of smooth functions approximating nonsmooth (generalized) f ...
φ, which should be ''C
∞'', of integral one and have all its derivatives at 0 vanishing. To obtain a canonical injection, the indexing set can be modified to be N × ''D''(R), with a convenient
filter base
In mathematics, a filter on a set X is a family \mathcal of subsets such that:
# X \in \mathcal and \emptyset \notin \mathcal
# if A\in \mathcal and B \in \mathcal, then A\cap B\in \mathcal
# If A,B\subset X,A\in \mathcal, and A\subset B, then ...
on ''D''(R) (functions of vanishing
moments up to order ''q'').
Sheaf structure
If (''E'',''P'') is a (pre-)
sheaf
Sheaf may refer to:
* Sheaf (agriculture), a bundle of harvested cereal stems
* Sheaf (mathematics), a mathematical tool
* Sheaf toss, a Scottish sport
* River Sheaf, a tributary of River Don in England
* ''The Sheaf'', a student-run newspaper se ...
of semi normed algebras on some topological space ''X'', then ''G
s''(''E'', ''P'') will also have this property. This means that the notion of
restriction
Restriction, restrict or restrictor may refer to:
Science and technology
* restrict, a keyword in the C programming language used in pointer declarations
* Restriction enzyme, a type of enzyme that cleaves genetic material
Mathematics and logi ...
will be defined, which allows to define the
support of a generalized function w.r.t. a subsheaf, in particular:
* For the subsheaf , one gets the usual support (complement of the largest open subset where the function is zero).
* For the subsheaf ''E'' (embedded using the canonical (constant) injection), one gets what is called the
singular support
In mathematics, the support of a Real number, real-valued Function (mathematics), function f is the subset of the function Domain of a function, domain containing the elements which are not mapped to zero. If the domain of f is a topological spac ...
, i.e., roughly speaking, the closure of the set where the generalized function is not a smooth function (for ''E'' = ''C''
∞).
Microlocal analysis
The
Fourier transformation
A Fourier transform (FT) is a mathematical transform that decomposes functions into frequency components, which are represented by the output of the transform as a function of frequency. Most commonly functions of time or space are transformed ...
being (well-)defined for compactly supported generalized functions (component-wise), one can apply the same construction as for distributions, and define
Lars Hörmander
Lars Valter Hörmander (24 January 1931 – 25 November 2012) was a Swedish mathematician who has been called "the foremost contributor to the modern theory of linear partial differential equations". Hörmander was awarded the Fields Medal ...
's ''
wave front set
In mathematical analysis, more precisely in microlocal analysis, the wave front (set) WF(''f'') characterizes the singularities of a generalized function ''f'', not only in space, but also with respect to its Fourier transform at each point. The t ...
'' also for generalized functions.
This has an especially important application in the analysis of
propagation
Propagation can refer to:
* Chain propagation in a chemical reaction mechanism
*Crack propagation, the growth of a crack during the fracture of materials
* Propaganda, non-objective information used to further an agenda
* Reproduction, and other fo ...
of
singularities.
Other theories
These include: the ''convolution quotient'' theory of
Jan Mikusinski
Jan, JaN or JAN may refer to:
Acronyms
* Jackson, Mississippi (Amtrak station), US, Amtrak station code JAN
* Jackson-Evers International Airport, Mississippi, US, IATA code
* Jabhat al-Nusra (JaN), a Syrian militant group
* Japanese Article Numb ...
, based on the
field of fractions
In abstract algebra, the field of fractions of an integral domain is the smallest field in which it can be embedded. The construction of the field of fractions is modeled on the relationship between the integral domain of integers and the field ...
of
convolution
In mathematics (in particular, functional analysis), convolution is a operation (mathematics), mathematical operation on two function (mathematics), functions ( and ) that produces a third function (f*g) that expresses how the shape of one is ...
algebras that are
integral domain
In mathematics, specifically abstract algebra, an integral domain is a nonzero commutative ring in which the product of any two nonzero elements is nonzero. Integral domains are generalizations of the ring of integers and provide a natural set ...
s; and the theories of
hyperfunction
In mathematics, hyperfunctions are generalizations of functions, as a 'jump' from one holomorphic function to another at a boundary, and can be thought of informally as distributions of infinite order. Hyperfunctions were introduced by Mikio Sato ...
s, based (in their initial conception) on boundary values of
analytic function
In mathematics, an analytic function is a function that is locally given by a convergent power series. There exist both real analytic functions and complex analytic functions. Functions of each type are infinitely differentiable, but complex an ...
s, and now making use of
sheaf theory
In mathematics, a sheaf is a tool for systematically tracking data (such as sets, abelian groups, rings) attached to the open sets of a topological space and defined locally with regard to them. For example, for each open set, the data could ...
.
Topological groups
Bruhat introduced a class of
test function
Distributions, also known as Schwartz distributions or generalized functions, are objects that generalize the classical notion of functions in mathematical analysis. Distributions make it possible to differentiate functions whose derivatives d ...
s, the
Schwartz–Bruhat function In mathematics, a Schwartz–Bruhat function, named after Laurent Schwartz and François Bruhat, is a complex valued function on a locally compact abelian group, such as the adeles, that generalizes a Schwartz function on a real vector space. A t ...
s as they are now known, on a class of
locally compact group
In mathematics, a locally compact group is a topological group ''G'' for which the underlying topology is locally compact and Hausdorff. Locally compact groups are important because many examples of groups that arise throughout mathematics are lo ...
s that goes beyond the
manifold
In mathematics, a manifold is a topological space that locally resembles Euclidean space near each point. More precisely, an n-dimensional manifold, or ''n-manifold'' for short, is a topological space with the property that each point has a n ...
s that are the typical
function domain
In mathematics, the domain of a function is the set of inputs accepted by the function. It is sometimes denoted by \operatorname(f) or \operatornamef, where is the function.
More precisely, given a function f\colon X\to Y, the domain of is . ...
s. The applications are mostly in
number theory
Number theory (or arithmetic or higher arithmetic in older usage) is a branch of pure mathematics devoted primarily to the study of the integers and arithmetic function, integer-valued functions. German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777 ...
, particularly to
adelic algebraic group In abstract algebra, an adelic algebraic group is a semitopological group defined by an algebraic group ''G'' over a number field ''K'', and the adele ring ''A'' = ''A''(''K'') of ''K''. It consists of the points of ''G'' having values in ''A''; the ...
s.
André Weil
André Weil (; ; 6 May 1906 – 6 August 1998) was a French mathematician, known for his foundational work in number theory and algebraic geometry. He was a founding member and the ''de facto'' early leader of the mathematical Bourbaki group. Th ...
rewrote
Tate's thesis
In number theory, Tate's thesis is the 1950 PhD thesis of completed under the supervision of Emil Artin at Princeton University. In it, Tate used a translation invariant integration on the locally compact group of ideles to lift the zeta function ...
in this language, characterizing the
zeta distribution
In probability theory and statistics, the zeta distribution is a discrete probability distribution. If ''X'' is a zeta-distributed random variable with parameter ''s'', then the probability that ''X'' takes the integer value ''k'' is given by ...
on the
idele group In abstract algebra, an adelic algebraic group is a semitopological group defined by an algebraic group ''G'' over a number field ''K'', and the adele ring ''A'' = ''A''(''K'') of ''K''. It consists of the points of ''G'' having values in ''A''; t ...
; and has also applied it to the
explicit formula of an L-function.
Generalized section
A further way in which the theory has been extended is as generalized sections of a smooth
vector bundle
In mathematics, a vector bundle is a topological construction that makes precise the idea of a family of vector spaces parameterized by another space X (for example X could be a topological space, a manifold, or an algebraic variety): to every po ...
. This is on the Schwartz pattern, constructing objects dual to the test objects, smooth sections of a bundle that have
compact support
In mathematics, the support of a real-valued function f is the subset of the function domain containing the elements which are not mapped to zero. If the domain of f is a topological space, then the support of f is instead defined as the smallest ...
. The most developed theory is that of
De Rham currents, dual to
differential form
In mathematics, differential forms provide a unified approach to define integrands over curves, surfaces, solids, and higher-dimensional manifolds. The modern notion of differential forms was pioneered by Élie Cartan. It has many applications, ...
s. These are homological in nature, in the way that differential forms give rise to
De Rham cohomology. They can be used to formulate a very general
Stokes' theorem
Stokes's theorem, also known as the Kelvin–Stokes theorem Nagayoshi Iwahori, et al.:"Bi-Bun-Seki-Bun-Gaku" Sho-Ka-Bou(jp) 1983/12Written in Japanese)Atsuo Fujimoto;"Vector-Kai-Seki Gendai su-gaku rekucha zu. C(1)" :ja:培風館, Bai-Fu-Kan( ...
.
See also
*
Beppo-Levi space
*
Dirac delta function
In mathematics, the Dirac delta distribution ( distribution), also known as the unit impulse, is a generalized function or distribution over the real numbers, whose value is zero everywhere except at zero, and whose integral over the entire ...
*
Generalized eigenfunction
In mathematics, a rigged Hilbert space (Gelfand triple, nested Hilbert space, equipped Hilbert space) is a construction designed to link the distribution and square-integrable aspects of functional analysis. Such spaces were introduced to study s ...
*
Distribution (mathematics)
Distributions, also known as Schwartz distributions or generalized functions, are objects that generalize the classical notion of functions in mathematical analysis. Distributions make it possible to differentiate functions whose derivatives d ...
*
Hyperfunction
In mathematics, hyperfunctions are generalizations of functions, as a 'jump' from one holomorphic function to another at a boundary, and can be thought of informally as distributions of infinite order. Hyperfunctions were introduced by Mikio Sato ...
*
Laplacian of the indicator
In mathematics, the Laplacian of the indicator of the domain ''D'' is a generalisation of the derivative of the Dirac delta function to higher dimensions, and is non-zero only on the ''surface'' of ''D''. It can be viewed as the ''surface delta pr ...
*
Rigged Hilbert space
In mathematics, a rigged Hilbert space (Gelfand triple, nested Hilbert space, equipped Hilbert space) is a construction designed to link the distribution and square-integrable aspects of functional analysis. Such spaces were introduced to study s ...
*
Limit of a distribution
Books
* L. Schwartz: Théorie des distributions.
* A. Beurling, On quasianalyticity and general distributions (Stanford, Calif., 1961).
otes by P. L. Duren*
I.M. Gel'fand et al.: Generalized Functions, vols I–VI, Academic Press, 1964. (Translated from Russian.)
* L. Hörmander: The Analysis of Linear Partial Differential Operators, Springer Verlag, 1983.
* H. Komatsu, Introduction to the theory of distributions, Second edition, Iwanami Shoten, Tokyo, 1983.
*
J.-F. Colombeau: New Generalized Functions and Multiplication of Distributions, North Holland, 1983.
* V. S. Vladimirov, Yu. N. Drozhzhinov, and B. I. Zav’yalov, Tauberian theorems for generalized functions, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, 1988.
* M. Oberguggenberger: Multiplication of distributions and applications to partial differential equations (Longman, Harlow, 1992).
* M. Morimoto, An introduction to Sato’s hyperfunctions, AMS, Providence, RI, 1993.
* A. S. Demidov: Generalized Functions in Mathematical Physics: Main Ideas and Concepts (Nova Science Publishers, Huntington, 2001). With an addition by
Yu. V. Egorov.
* M. Grosser et al.: Geometric theory of generalized functions with applications to general relativity, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2001.
* R. Estrada, R. Kanwal: A distributional approach to asymptotics. Theory and applications, Birkhäuser Boston, Boston, MA, 2002.
* V. S. Vladimirov, Methods of the theory of generalized functions, Taylor & Francis, London, 2002.
*
H. Kleinert, ''Path Integrals in Quantum Mechanics, Statistics, Polymer Physics, and Financial Markets'', 4th edition
World Scientific (Singapore, 2006)online here
. See Chapter 11 for products of generalized functions.
* S. Pilipovi, B. Stankovic, J. Vindas, Asymptotic behavior of generalized functions, World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd., Hackensack, NJ, 2012.
References
{{DEFAULTSORT:Generalized Function