Gemara

The Gemara (also transliterated Gemarah, or in Yiddish Gemo(r)re; from Aramaic , from the Semitic root ג-מ-ר ''gamar'', to finish or complete) is the component of the Talmud comprising rabbinical analysis of and commentary on the Mishnah written in 63 books. At first, Gemara was only transmitted orally and was forbidden to be written down, however after the Mishnah was published by Judah the Prince (c. 200 CE), the work was studied exhaustively by generation after generation of rabbis in Babylonia and the Land of Israel. Their discussions were written down in a series of books that became the Gemara, which when combined with the Mishnah constituted the Talmud.

There are two versions of the Gemara. The Jerusalem Talmud (Talmud Yerushalmi), also known as the Palestinian Talmud, was compiled by Jewish scholars of the Land of Israel, primarily of the academies of Tiberias and Caesarea, and was published between about 350–400 CE. The Talmud Bavli (Babylonian Talmud) was published about 500 CE by scholars of Babylonia, primarily of the academies of Sura, Pumbedita, and Nehardea. By convention, a reference to the "Gemara" or "Talmud," without further qualification, refers to the Babylonian version. The main compilers were Ravina and Rav Ashi.

There are six groups of Gemara, namely Zeraim, Moed, Nashim, Nezikin, Kodshim and Taharot. There is a custom made in 1923 by Polish rabbi Meir Shapiro, who saw that there were parts of the Gemara that would never get read, so he started an initiative called Daf Yomi, where people learn a page of Gemara every day for seven years in order that the entire Gemara would be learned.

Gemara and Mishnah

The Gemara and the Mishnah together make up the Talmud. The Talmud thus comprises two components: the Mishnah – the core text; and the Gemara – analysis and commentary which "completes" the Talmud (see Structure of the Talmud).
Maimonides describes the Gemara component as:

The rabbis of the Mishnah are known as ''Tannaim'' (sing. ''Tanna'' ). The rabbis of the Gemara are referred to as '' Amoraim'' (sing. ''Amora'' אמורא). The analysis of the Amoraim, recorded as ''gemara'', is thus focused on clarifying the positions, views, and word choice of the Tannaim.

Because there are two Gemaras, as mentioned above, there are in fact two Talmuds: the Jerusalem Talmud (Hebrew: , "Talmud Yerushalmi"), and the Babylonian Talmud (Hebrew: , "Talmud Bavli"), corresponding to the Jerusalem Gemara and the Babylonian Gemara; both share the same Mishnah. The Gemara is mostly written in Aramaic, the Jerusalem Gemara in Western Aramaic and the Babylonian in Eastern Aramaic, but both contain portions in Hebrew. Sometimes the language changes in the middle of a story.

Origins of the word

In a narrow sense, the word refers to the mastery and transmission of existing tradition, as opposed to , which means the deriving of new results by logic. Both activities are represented in the as one literary work. The term for the activity of study is far older than its use as a description of any text: thus Pirke Avot
Ch.5
, a work long preceding the recording of the Talmud, recommends starting at the age of 10 and , meaning the Gemara, at the age of 15.

The ''Sugya''

The analysis of the ''Amoraim'' is generally focused on clarifying the positions, words and views of the ''Tannaim''. These debates and exchanges form the "building-blocks" of the ; the name for such a passage of Gemara is a (; plural ). A will typically comprise a detailed proof-based elaboration of the . Every aspect of the text is treated as a subject of close investigation. This analysis is aimed at an exhaustive understanding of the full meaning.

In the Talmud, a is presented as a series of responsive hypotheses and questions – with the Talmudic text as a record of each step in the process of reasoning and derivation. The thus takes the form of a dialectical exchange (by contrast, the states concluded legal opinions – and often differences in opinion between the ''Tannaim''. There is little dialogue). The disputants here are termed the (questioner, "one who raises a difficulty") and (answerer, "one who puts straight").

The records the semantic disagreements between ''Tannaim'' and ''Amoraim''. Some of these debates were actually conducted by the ''Amoraim'', though many of them are hypothetically reconstructed by the Talmud's redactors. (Often imputing a view to an earlier authority as to how he may have answered a question: "This is what Rabbi X could have argued ...") Only rarely are debates formally closed.

Argumentation and debate

The distinctive character of the derives largely from the intricate use of argumentation and debate, described above;
these "back and forth" analytics are characterized by the Talmudic phrase ''shakla v'tarya'' (שקלא וטריא; lit "taking and throwing").
In each , either participant may cite scriptural, and proof to build a logical support for their respective opinions. The process of deduction required to derive a conclusion from a prooftext is often logically complex and indirect. "Confronted with a statement on any subject, the Talmudic student will proceed to raise a series of questions before he satisfies himself of having understood its full meaning." This analysis has been described as "mathematical" in approach; Adin Steinsaltz makes the analogy of the ''Amoraim'' as scientists investigating the Halakha, where the Tanakh, Tosefta and midrash are the phenomena studied.

Prooftexts

Prooftexts quoted to corroborate or disprove the respective opinions and theories will include:
* verses from the Tanakh: the exact language employed is regarded as significant;
* other : cross-references to analogous cases, or to parallel reasoning by the in question;
* '' Beraitot'' (ברייתות) – uncodified which are also sources of halakha (lit. outside material; sing. ברייתא);
** references to opinions and cases in the (תוספתא);
** references to the ();
* cross-references to other : again to analogous cases or logic.

Questions addressed

The actual debate will usually centre on the following categories:

Language

Why does the use one word rather than another? If a statement is not clear enough, the seeks to clarify the intention.

Logic

Exploring the logical principles underlying the statements, and showing how different understandings of the reasons could lead to differences in their practical application. What underlying principle is entailed in a statement of fact or in a specific instance brought as an illustration? If a statement appears obvious, the seeks the logical reason for its necessity. It seeks to answer under which circumstances a statement is true, and what qualifications are permissible. All statements are examined for internal consistency.
See: List of Talmudic principles and :Talmud concepts and terminology

Legal

Resolving contradictions, perceived or actual, between different statements in the , or between the and other traditions; e.g., by stating that: two conflicting sources are dealing with differing circumstances; or that they represent the views of different rabbis. Do certain authorities differ or not? If they do, why do they differ? If a principle is presented as a generalization, the clarifies how much is included; if an exception, how much is excluded.

Biblical exposition

Demonstrating how the rulings or disputes derive from interpretations of Biblical texts, the will often ask where in the Torah the derives a particular law. See Talmudic hermeneutics and Oral Torah #The interplay of the Oral and Written Law.

See also

*
* Hadran (Talmud)
* List of masechtot, chapters, mishnahs and pages in the Talmud
* Oral Torah
*
*
*
* Rabbinic works elaborating the analytical methods employed in :
** - R. Aryeh Leib HaCohen Heller
** and - R. Moshe Chaim Luzzatto
*
''Mevo haTalmud''
- Shmuel HaNagid

Further reading

*
Gemara
, ''Jewish Encyclopedia''
*

, Prof. Eliezer Segal
* "Maimonides introduction to the Mishneh Torah
English translation
*

, Samuel ha-Nagid
*
Talmudic Method
, Harry Austryn Wolfson
* ''The Essential Talmud: Thirtieth Anniversary Edition'', Adin Steinsaltz (Basic Books, 2006). Read mor
here
. See als
here
.
* ''The Talmud: A Reference Guide'', Adin Steinsaltz (Random House, 1996). Read mor
here
.
* ''Introduction to The Talmud and Midrash'', H.L. Strack and G. Stemberger (Fortress Press, 1992).
* ''The Infinite Chain: Torah, Masorah, and Man'', Nathan T. Lopes Cardozo (Targum Press Distributed by Philipp Feldheim, 1989).

References

External links

Gemara Marking System: Keys to Structure


Daf-A-Week: A project to study a daf per week

The Complete Babylonian Talmud
(Aramaic/Hebrew) as scanned images of the pages.

The Complete Babylonian Talmud
(Aramaic/Hebrew) as text. (Also available fro



A printable chart with listings of all Dappim from each Mesechta

Gemara Brochos:"Shema, Tefillah and Brochos"

Daily Gemara by Rabbi Eli Mansour
*
{{Authority control

Gemara
Aramaic words and phrases
Oral Torah
Aramaic words and phrases in Jewish prayers and blessings
Sifrei Kodesh