were the commissioners or "magistrates of foreign affairs" appointed at the end of the

Edo era The or is the period between 1603 and 1867 in the history of Japan, when Japan was under the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate and the country's 300 regional '' daimyo''. Emerging from the chaos of the Sengoku period, the Edo period was characteri ...

by the

Tokugawa shogunate The Tokugawa shogunate (, Japanese 徳川幕府 ''Tokugawa bakufu''), also known as the , was the military government of Japan during the Edo period from 1603 to 1868. Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric. (2005)"''Tokugawa-jidai''"in ''Japan Encyclopedia ...

to oversee trade and diplomatic relations with foreign countries. In essence this was the beginning of the creation of a

Ministry of Foreign Affairs In many countries, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs is the government department responsible for the state's diplomacy, bilateral, and multilateral relations affairs as well as for providing support for a country's citizens who are abroad. The entit ...

after Japan's long period of isolationist policy.

Historical background

The ''Gaikoku bugyō'' system began just prior to the negotiations which resulted in the

Harris Treaty Harris may refer to: Places Canada * Harris, Ontario * Northland Pyrite Mine (also known as Harris Mine) * Harris, Saskatchewan * Rural Municipality of Harris No. 316, Saskatchewan Scotland * Harris, Outer Hebrides (sometimes called the Isle ...

. First appointed in August 1858, the ''gaikoku-bugyō'' were shogunate officials who were charged with advising the government on foreign affairs and who were tasked with conducting negotiations with foreign diplomats both in Japan and abroad.Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric. (2005). "''Gaikoku bugyō''" in ; n.b., Louis-Frédéric is pseudonym of Louis-Frédéric Nussbaum, ''see'
Deutsche Nationalbibliothek Authority File
This was a high-ranking office, in status roughly equivalent to that of ''kanjō-bugyō'', or expressed differently, the status of this office ranked slightly below that of ''

daimyō were powerful Japanese magnates, feudal lords who, from the 10th century to the early Meiji era, Meiji period in the middle 19th century, ruled most of Japan from their vast, hereditary land holdings. They were subordinate to the shogun and n ...

''. The number of ''gaikoku bugyō'' varied, from five in 1858 to a maximum of 13, with wide variations in the numbers of officials who were appointed across the span of years.Beasley, W. G. (1955). ''Select Documents on Japanese Foreign Policy, 1853–1868'', p. 322. The office was often held concurrently with that of ''kanjō-bugyō'' or the office was held concurrently by those serving the shogunate as governor of one of the great ports (Nagasaki ''bugyō'' or Kanagawa ''bugyō''). The ''Gaikoku bugyō'' system ended in 1869 when the new Meiji government was formed; but some of the foundational work of this period proved useful to the nascent

. Some 70 ''Gaikoku bugyō'' commissioners were named during this significant period. Hotta succeeded

Abe Masahiro was the chief senior councilor (''rōjū'') in the Tokugawa shogunate of the Bakumatsu period at the time of the arrival of Commodore Matthew Perry on his mission to open Japan to the outside world. Abe was instrumental in the eventual signing o ...

, and in his years at the post had to address the issue of the

of 1858. The genesis of the ''gaikoku-bugyō'' pre-dates the actual creation of the office.

''Kaibō-gakari''

The prefix ''kaibō-gakari'' meaning "in charge of maritime defense" was used with the titles of some shogunate officials after 1845. This term was used to designate those who bore a special responsibility for overseeing coastal waters, and by implication, for dealing with matters involving foreigners—for example, ''kaibō-gakari-ōmetsuke'' which later came to be superseded by the term ''gaikoku-gakari.''

''Gaikoku-bōeki-torishirabe-gakari''

''Rōjū''

Hotta Masayoshi was the 5th Hotta ''daimyō'' of the Sakura Domain in the Japanese Edo period, who served as chief ''rōjū'' in the Bakumatsu period Tokugawa shogunate, where he played an important role in the negotiations of the Ansei Treaties with various fo ...

formed an ''ad hoc'' committee of shogunate officials with special knowledge of foreign affairs, and he himself headed this working group. In November 1856, he appointed the members and charged them to come up with recommendations about the terms for opening Japanese ports. The results of their deliberations would become the basis for negotiations which ultimately resulted in the Harris Treaty (the Treaty of Amity and Commerce between Japan and the United States).

List of ''gaikoku bugyō''

The numbers of ''gaikoku bugyō'' varied throughout the Edo period: :: *

Iwase Tadanari Iwase may refer to: Places * Iwase Province * Iwase, Fukushima * Iwase, Ibaraki * Iwase District, Fukushima is a district located in Fukushima Prefecture, Japan. As of 2003, the district has an estimated population of 31,847 and a density of ...

(1858).Beasley, p. 333. *

Tsutsui Masanori Tsutsui (written: 筒井 meaning "round well") is a Japanese surname. Notable people with the surname include: *, Japanese artist *, Japanese warrior monk *, Japanese ''daimyō'' *, Japanese ''daimyō'' *, Japanese baseball player *, Japanese voll ...

(1858). *

Inoue Kiyonao Inoue (kanji: , historical kana orthography: ''Winouhe'') is the 16th most common Japanese surname. Historically, it was also romanized as Inouye, and many Japanese-descended people outside of Japan still retain this spelling. A less common vari ...

(1858–1859, 1862–1863, 1864). *

Nagai Naoyuki , also known as or , was a Japanese hatamoto under the Tokugawa of Bakumatsu period Japan. His great-great-grandchild was Yukio Mishima. Naoyuki's adopted son, Iwanojō Nagai, was the father of Natsu, who was Mishima's grandmother. Iwanojō's r ...

(1858–1859, 1865–1867).Beasley, p. 338. *

Mizuno Tadanori was the 8th and final ''daimyō'' of Numazu Domain in Suruga Province, Honshū, Japan (modern-day Shizuoka Prefecture), and 15th hereditary head of the Numazu-Mizuno clan. Biography Mizuno Tadanori was born as the younger son of a ''hatamoto'' o ...

(1858–1859, 1861–1862). *

Hori Toshihiro Hori may refer to: Ancient Egypt *Sewadjkare Hori, late 13th dynasty Pharaoh, also known as Hori II *Hori (High Priest of Osiris) Son of Wennenufer and High Priest of Osiris during the reign of Ramesses II (19th dynasty) *Hori I (High Priest of Pta ...

(1858–1860) *

Watanabe Takatsuna Watanabe ( and other variantsSee #Miscellaneous) is a Japanese surname derived from the noble and samurai Watanabe clan, a branch of the Minamoto clan, descending from the Emperor Saga (786-842), the 52nd Emperor of Japan, and refers to a locati ...

(1859) *

Matsudaira Yasuhide (July 16, 1830 – July 5, 1904) was a Japanese ''daimyō'' of the late Edo period, who ruled the Tanakura and then Kawagoe Domains. He served as ''gaikoku bugyō'' and '' rōjū'' in the Tokugawa administration. Biography Matsudaira Yasuhide ...

(1859–1860, 1861–1863) *

Takemoto Masao Takemoto (written: , , or ) is a Japanese surname. Notable people with the surname include: *, Japanese voice actor *, Japanese playwright and puppet theatre director * Iwao Takamoto (1925–2007), American animator, television producer, and fil ...

(1859–1862, 1863–1864).Beasley, p. 340. * Sakai Tadayuki (1859–1860) * Mizoguchi Naokiyo (1859–1860) *

Shinmi Masaoki Shinmi (), born Kim Su-seong () was a Buddhist monk during the early Joseon dynasty. He was depicted in the 2019 film ''The King's Letters'' for his role in the creation of Hangul. He came from the Yeongdong (Yeongsan) Kim clan. In its genealogy ...

(1859–1862) *

Matsudaira Yasunao The was a Japanese samurai clan that descended from the Minamoto clan. It originated in and took its name from Matsudaira village, in Mikawa Province (modern-day Aichi Prefecture). During the Sengoku period, the chieftain of the main line of t ...

(1860, 1861–1863). *

Oguri Tadamasa Oguri Kozukenosuke (Oguri Tadamasa, 16 July 1827 – 27 May 1868) was a statesman of the Tokugawa government in the last stage of the Edo period, and he is often regarded as a rival of Katsu Kaishu. At the time when the power of the Tokugawa go ...

(1860–1861). *

Takeuchi Yasunori Takeuchi ( ja, 竹内; "within bamboo" or ja, 武内; "warrior household") is a Japanese surname. It is common in west-central Japan, and is pronounced Takenouchi (''Take-no-uchi'') by some bearers. The family claims descent from the legendary hero ...

(1861–1864). *

Okubo Ichio , also Okubo, Ohkubo and Ookubo, is a Japanese surname. Notable people with the surname include: *Ōkubo clan **Ōkubo Tadayo (1532–1594), Japanese daimyō of the Sengoku period **Ōkubo Tadasuke (1537–1613), Japanese daimyō of the Sengoku an ...

(1861–1862). *

Abe Masatō was the 7th Abe ''daimyō'' of Shirakawa Domain, and an important official in the Bakumatsu period Tokugawa shogunate. Early life as a ''hatamoto'' Masatō was born the younger son of Abe Shōzō, a 3000 '' koku'' ''hatamoto'' retainer of Shir ...

(1862–1863). *

Kawaji Toshiaki Kawaji (written: 川路) is a Japanese surname. Notable people with the surname include: *, Japanese politician *, pen name of Kawaki Makoto, Japanese poet and literary critic See also * Kawaji Station, a railway station in Iida, Nagano Prefecture ...

(1863).Beasley, p. 334. *

Ikeda Nagaaki Ikeda may refer to: * Ikeda (surname), a Japanese surname * Ikeda (comics), a character in ''Usagi Yojimbo'' * Ikeda clan, a Japanese clan * Ikeda map, chaotic attractor * ''Ikeda'' (annelid) a genus of the family Ikedidae Places * Ikeda, Osak ...

(1863–1864). *

Kawazu Sukekuni Kawazu may refer to: Places *Kawazu, Shizuoka 270px, Kawazu Town Hall 270px, Kawazu sakura is a town located on the east coast of Izu Peninsula in Kamo District, Shizuoka Prefecture, Japan. , the town had an estimated population of 7,20 ...

(1863–1864). *

Shibata Takenaka was an emissary for Japan who visited France in 1865 to help prepare for the construction of the Yokosuka arsenal with French support. Also known as as well as "Shadow" because of his reconnaissance work. Life Takenaka was born in Edo ...

(1863–1868). *

Sasaki Akinori Sasaki () is the 13th most common Japanese surname. Less common variants are 佐咲, 佐佐木 and 笹木. Notable people with the surname include: Overview *, Japanese figure skater *, Japanese alpine skier *, Japanese idol and singer *, Japane ...

(1864) *

Tsuchiya Masanao , was a ''daimyō'' in Japan during the Edo period.Meyer, Eva-Maria"Gouverneure von Kyôto in der Edo-Zeit". Universität Tübingen (in German). Masanao's daimyō family was descended from Minamoto Yasuuji (Seiwa-Genji). The descendants of Tsuchi ...

(1864) * Kinoshita Toshiyoshi (1865–1866) *

Kurimoto Joun Kurimoto (written: 栗本) is a Japanese surname. Notable people with the surname include: *, pen name of Sumiyo Imaoka, Japanese writer *, Japanese naturalist, zoologist and entomologist *, Japanese writer and politician See also * Kurimoto, Chib ...

(1865–1866, 1866–1867). *

Yamaguchi Naoki Yamaguchi may refer to: People *Yamaguchi (surname), the 14th most popular Japanese surname. Places *Yamaguchi Prefecture, the westernmost prefecture of Honshū island of Japan **Yamaguchi (city), capital of Yamaguchi Prefecture ***Yamaguchi Sta ...

(1865–1866, 1867) * Asagara Masahiro (1865–1867) * Gōhara Isaburo (1866) * Hirayama Seisei (1866–1868). * Narushima Ryūhoku (1866).National Diet Library
Narushima Ryuhoku, image
/ref> *

Koide Hidezane Koide village is located in Senapati district, Manipur, India India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most pop ...

(1866–1867) *

Tsukahara Masayoshi Mitsuo Tsukahara (塚原光男 ''Tsukahara Mitsuo'', born December 22, 1947) is a Japanese artistic gymnast. He was five times an Olympic Gold Medalist. He remained active in the sport after his retirement from competition. He served as vice ...

(1866–1867) * Mukōyama Ippaku (1866–1868) *

Ishikawa Toshimasa Ishikawa may refer to: Concepts *Ishikawa diagram, cause-and-effect diagram, developed by Kaoru Ishikawa Places *Ishikawa Prefecture, a prefecture in the Chūbu region on Honshū island, Japan *Ishikawa District, Ishikawa, a former district in I ...

(1867–1868) * Hiraoka Jun (1867–1868) * Narishima Hiroshi (1868)

Notes

References

* Beasley, W. G. (1955)
''Select Documents on Japanese Foreign Policy, 1853–1868''.
London:

Oxford University Press Oxford University Press (OUP) is the university press of the University of Oxford. It is the largest university press in the world, and its printing history dates back to the 1480s. Having been officially granted the legal right to print books ...

; reprinted by

RoutledgeCurzon Routledge () is a British multinational publisher. It was founded in 1836 by George Routledge, and specialises in providing academic books, journals and online resources in the fields of the humanities, behavioural science, education, law, and ...

, London, 2001. * Cullen, L. M. (2003). ''A History of Japan, 1582–1941: Internal and External Worlds''. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press Cambridge University Press is the university press of the University of Cambridge. Granted letters patent by Henry VIII of England, King Henry VIII in 1534, it is the oldest university press A university press is an academic publishing hou ...

. (cloth) (paper) * Doi, Ryōzō. (1997). ''Bakumatsu gonin no gaikoku bugyo: Kaikoku o jitsugensaseta bushi''. Tokyo: Chuokoron-shinsha. * Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric and Käthe Roth. (2005)
''Japan encyclopedia''.
Cambridge:

Harvard University Press Harvard University Press (HUP) is a publishing house established on January 13, 1913, as a division of Harvard University, and focused on academic publishing. It is a member of the Association of American University Presses. After the retirem ...

.
OCLC 58053128
* Sawada, Janine Anderson. (2004).
''Practical Pursuits: Religion, Politics and Personal Cultivation in Nineteenth Century Japan''.
Honolulu:

University of Hawaii Press A university () is an institution of higher (or tertiary) education and research which awards academic degrees in several academic disciplines. Universities typically offer both undergraduate and postgraduate programs. In the United States, the ...

. (cloth) {{DEFAULTSORT:Gaikoku Bugyo Government of feudal Japan Officials of the Tokugawa shogunate Foreign relations of the Tokugawa shogunate