The Normandy Campaigns were wars in
Normandy
Normandy (; french: link=no, Normandie ; nrf, Normaundie, Nouormandie ; from Old French , plural of ''Normant'', originally from the word for "northman" in several Scandinavian languages) is a geographical and cultural region in Northwestern ...
from 1202 to 1204. The
Kingdom of England
The Kingdom of England (, ) was a sovereign state on the island of Great Britain from 12 July 927, when it emerged from various Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, until 1 May 1707, when it united with Scotland to form the Kingdom of Great Britain.
On ...
fought the
Kingdom of France
The Kingdom of France ( fro, Reaume de France; frm, Royaulme de France; french: link=yes, Royaume de France) is the historiographical name or umbrella term given to various political entities of France in the medieval and early modern period. ...
as well as fighting off rebellions from nobles.
Philip II of France
Philip II (21 August 1165 – 14 July 1223), byname Philip Augustus (french: Philippe Auguste), was King of France from 1180 to 1223. His predecessors had been known as kings of the Franks, but from 1190 onward, Philip became the first French m ...
conquered the Anglo-Angevin territories in Normandy, resulting in the
Siege of Château Gaillard
The siege of Château Gaillard was a part of Philip II's campaign to conquer John, King of England's continental properties. The French king besieged Château Gaillard, a Norman fortress, for six months. The Anglo-Normans were beaten in the b ...
. The Normandy Campaigns ended in a victory for France when the Anglo-Angevin territory was greatly diminished.
Background
After
Richard the Lionheart
Richard I (8 September 1157 – 6 April 1199) was King of England from 1189 until his death in 1199. He also ruled as Duke of Normandy, Aquitaine and Gascony, Lord of Cyprus, and Count of Poitiers, Anjou, Maine, and Nantes, and was overl ...
's death on 6 April 1199, there were two potential claimants to the Angevin throne:
John
John is a common English name and surname:
* John (given name)
* John (surname)
John may also refer to:
New Testament
Works
* Gospel of John, a title often shortened to John
* First Epistle of John, often shortened to 1 John
* Secon ...
, whose claim rested on being the sole surviving son of
Henry II, and young
Arthur of Brittany
Arthur I ( br, Arzhur 1añ; french: link=no, Arthur 1er de Bretagne) (29 March 1187 – presumably 1203) was 4th Earl of Richmond and Duke of Brittany between 1196 and 1203. He was the posthumous son of Geoffrey II, Duke of Brittany, and Const ...
, who held a claim as the son of
Geoffrey, and hence was Henry II's grandson. Medieval law gave little guidance as to how the competing claims should be decided, with Norman law favouring John and Angevin law favouring Arthur; the matter rapidly became an open conflict.
[Barlow, p.305.] John was supported by the bulk of the English and Norman nobility and was crowned king at Westminster, backed by his mother,
Eleanor of Aquitaine
Eleanor ( – 1 April 1204; french: Aliénor d'Aquitaine, ) was Queen of France from 1137 to 1152 as the wife of King Louis VII, List of English royal consorts, Queen of England from 1154 to 1189 as the wife of Henry II of England, King Henry I ...
. Arthur was supported by the majority of the Breton, Maine and Anjou nobles and received the support of
Philip II, who remained committed to breaking up the Angevin territories on the continent.
[Warren, p.53.] With Arthur's army pressing up the
Loire valley towards
Angers
Angers (, , ) is a city in western France, about southwest of Paris. It is the prefecture of the Maine-et-Loire department and was the capital of the province of Anjou until the French Revolution. The inhabitants of both the city and the pr ...
and Philip's forces moving down the valley toward
Tours
Tours ( , ) is one of the largest cities in the region of Centre-Val de Loire, France. It is the prefecture of the department of Indre-et-Loire. The commune of Tours had 136,463 inhabitants as of 2018 while the population of the whole metro ...
, John's continental empire was in danger of being cut in two.
Warfare in Normandy at the time was shaped by the defensive potential of castles and the increasing costs of conducting campaigns. The Norman frontiers had limited natural defences but were heavily reinforced with castles, such as
Château Gaillard, at strategic points, built and maintained at considerable expense. It was difficult for a commander to advance far into fresh territory without having secured his lines of communication by capturing these fortifications, which slowed the progress of any attack. Armies of the period could be formed from either feudal or mercenary forces. Feudal levies could only be raised for a fixed length of time and proved an inflexible asset; mercenary forces, often called
Brabançons
The Brabançons or Brabanters ( la, Brabantiones) were ''routiers'' (mercenary troops) originally from the Duchy of Brabant active between 1166 and 1214.
Origins
Brabant was a part of the Holy Roman Empire. The social origins of the Brabançons a ...
after the
Duchy of Brabant
The Duchy of Brabant was a State of the Holy Roman Empire established in 1183. It developed from the Landgraviate of Brabant and formed the heart of the historic Low Countries, part of the Burgundian Netherlands from 1430 and of the Habsburg ...
but actually recruited from across
Northern Europe
The northern region of Europe has several definitions. A restrictive definition may describe Northern Europe as being roughly north of the southern coast of the Baltic Sea, which is about 54°N, or may be based on other geographical factors ...
, could provide much greater military agility and operate all year long, but cost much more than equivalent feudal forces.
Treaty of Le Goulet
The new peace, the
Treaty of Le Goulet, would only last for two years; war recommenced in the aftermath of John's decision in August 1200 to marry
Isabella of Angoulême
Isabella (french: Isabelle, ; c. 1186/ 1188 – 4 June 1246) was Queen of England from 1200 to 1216 as the second wife of King John, Countess of Angoulême in her own right from 1202 until her death in 1246, and Countess of La Marche from 122 ...
. In order to remarry, John first needed to abandon
Isabel, Countess of Gloucester, his first wife; John accomplished this by arguing that he had failed to get the necessary papal permission to marry Isabel in the first place – as a cousin, John could not have legally wed her without this.
[Turner, p.98.] It remains unclear why John chose to marry Isabella of Angoulême. Contemporary chroniclers argued that John had fallen deeply in love with Isabella, and John may have been motivated by a sexual desire for an apparently beautiful, if rather young, girl.
[ On the other hand, the Angoumois lands that came with Isabella were strategically vital to John: by marrying Isabella, John was acquiring a key land route between ]Poitou
Poitou (, , ; ; Poitevin: ''Poetou'') was a province of west-central France whose capital city was Poitiers. Both Poitou and Poitiers are named after the Pictones Gallic tribe.
Geography
The main historical cities are Poitiers (historical c ...
and Gascony
Gascony (; french: Gascogne ; oc, Gasconha ; eu, Gaskoinia) was a province of the southwestern Kingdom of France that succeeded the Duchy of Gascony (602–1453). From the 17th century until the French Revolution (1789–1799), it was part ...
, which significantly strengthened his grip on Aquitaine.[Turner, p.99.]
Unfortunately, Isabella had already been engaged to be married to Hugh X of Lusignan, an important member of a key Poitou noble family and brother of Raoul, the count of Eu
Count (feminine: countess) is a historical title of nobility in certain European countries, varying in relative status, generally of middling rank in the hierarchy of nobility.L. G. Pine, Pine, L. G. ''Titles: How the King Became His Majesty'' ...
, who possessed lands along the sensitive eastern Normandy border.[ Just as John stood to benefit strategically from marrying Isabella, so the marriage threatened the interests of the ]Lusignans
The House of Lusignan ( ; ) was a royal house of French origin, which at various times ruled several principalities in Europe and the Levant, including the kingdoms of Jerusalem, Cyprus, and Armenia, from the 12th through the 15th centuries duri ...
, whose own lands currently provided the key route for royal goods and troops across Aquitaine. Rather than negotiating some form of compensation, John treated Hugh "with contempt"; this resulted in a Lusignan uprising that was promptly crushed by John, who also intervened to suppress Raoul in Normandy.[
Although John was the count of Poitou and therefore the rightful feudal lord over the Lusignans, they could legitimately appeal to John's own feudal lord, Philip, in respect to decisions John took within his French lands.][ Hugh did exactly this in 1201 and Philip summoned John to attend court in Paris in 1202, citing the Le Goulet treaty to strengthen his case.][ John was unwilling to weaken his authority in western France in this way. He argued that he need not attend Philip's court because of his special status as the duke of Normandy, who was exempt by feudal tradition from being called to the French court.][ Philip argued that he was summoning John not as the duke of Normandy, but as the count of Poitou, which carried no such special status.][ When John still refused to come, Philip declared John in breach of his feudal responsibilities, reassigned all of John's lands that fell under the French crown to Arthur – with the exception of Normandy, which he took back for himself – and began a fresh war against John.][
]
Campaign
John initially adopted a defensive posture similar to that of 1199: avoiding open battle and carefully defending his key castles.[Turner, p.100.] John's operations became more chaotic as the campaign progressed, and Philip began to make steady progress in the east.[ John became aware in July that Arthur's forces were threatening his mother, Eleanor, at Mirebeau Castle. Accompanied by William de Roches, his seneschal in Anjou, he swung his mercenary army rapidly south to protect her.][ His turn of speed caught Arthur by surprise and the entire rebel leadership were taken prisoner at the ]Battle of Mirebeau
The Battle of Mirebeau was a battle in 1202 between the House of Lusignan- Breton alliance and the Kingdom of England. King John of England successfully smashed the Lusignan army by surprise.
Background
After Richard I's death on 6 April ...
.[ With his southern flank weakening, Philip was forced to withdraw in the east and turn south himself to contain John's army.][
John's position in France was considerably strengthened by the victory at Mirebeau. The king's treatment of his ally, William de Roches, and his new prisoners quickly undermined these gains. Despite de Roches being a powerful Anjou noble, John largely ignored him, causing considerable offence, whilst the king kept the rebel leaders in such bad conditions that twenty-two of them died. At this time most of the regional nobility were closely linked through kinship, and this behaviour towards their relatives was regarded as unacceptable.][Turner, p.101.] In the aftermath of these incidents, William de Roches and other of John's regional allies in Anjou and Brittany deserted him in favour of Philip, and Brittany rose in fresh revolt.[ John's financial situation was tenuous: once factors such as the comparative military costs of materiel and soldiers were taken into account, Philip enjoyed a considerable, although not overwhelming, advantage of resources over John. In 1202–1203 Philip II maintained an army of 3,307 men on the Norman border. It was composed of 257 ]knight
A knight is a person granted an honorary title of knighthood by a head of state (including the Pope) or representative for service to the monarch, the Christian denomination, church or the country, especially in a military capacity. Knighthood ...
s, 267 mounted sergeants, 80 mounted crossbow
A crossbow is a ranged weapon using an Elasticity (physics), elastic launching device consisting of a Bow and arrow, bow-like assembly called a ''prod'', mounted horizontally on a main frame called a ''tiller'', which is hand-held in a similar ...
men, 133 foot crossbowmen, 2,000 foot sergeants and 300 mercenaries
A mercenary, sometimes Pseudonym, also known as a soldier of fortune or hired gun, is a private individual, particularly a soldier, that joins a military conflict for personal profit, is otherwise an outsider to the conflict, and is not a memb ...
under Cadoc. This army defended the border and was disbanded after Normandy had been conquered.
Further desertions of John's local allies at the beginning of 1203 steadily reduced John's freedom to manoeuvre in the region.[ He attempted to convince Pope Innocent III to intervene in the conflict, but the Pope's legate was unsuccessful.][ As the situation became worse for John, he may have decided to have Arthur killed (though proof is lacking), with the aim of removing his potential rival and of undermining the rebel movement in Brittany.][ Arthur had initially been imprisoned at Falaise and was then moved to Rouen. After this, Arthur's fate remains uncertain, but modern historians believe he was murdered by John.][ The annals of ]Margam Abbey
Margam Abbey ( cy, Abaty Margam) was a Cistercian monastery, located in the village of Margam, a suburb of modern Port Talbot in Wales.
History
The abbey was founded in 1147 as a daughter house of Clairvaux by Robert, Earl of Gloucester ...
suggest that "John had captured Arthur and kept him alive in prison for some time in the castle of Rouen... when John was drunk he slew Arthur with his own hand and tying a heavy stone to the body cast it into the Seine
)
, mouth_location = Le Havre/ Honfleur
, mouth_coordinates =
, mouth_elevation =
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, river_system = Seine basin
, basin_size =
, tributaries_left = Yonne, Loing, Eure, Risle
, tributa ...
."[McLynn, p.306.] Rumours of Arthur's death further reduced support for John across the region.[ Arthur's sister, ]Eleanor
Eleanor () is a feminine given name, originally from an Old French adaptation of the Old Provençal name ''Aliénor''. It is the name of a number of women of royalty and nobility in western Europe during the High Middle Ages.
The name was intro ...
, who had also been captured at Mirebeau, was kept imprisoned by John for many years, albeit in relatively good conditions.[Warren, p.83.]
In late 1203, John attempted to relieve Château Gaillard, which although besieged by Philip was still guarding the eastern flank of Normandy.[ John attempted a synchronised operation involving land-based and water-borne forces, considered by most historians today to have been imaginative in conception, but overly complex for forces of the period to have carried out successfully.][Turner, p.102.] John's relief operation was blocked by Philip's forces, and John turned back to Brittany in an attempt to draw Philip away from eastern Normandy.[ John successfully devastated much of Brittany, but did not deflect Philip's main thrust into the east of Normandy.][ Opinions vary amongst historians as to the military skill shown by John during this campaign, with most recent historians arguing that his performance was passable, although not impressive.][
John's situation began to deteriorate rapidly. The eastern border region of Normandy had been extensively cultivated by Philip and his predecessors for several years, whilst Angevin authority in the south had been undermined by Richard's giving away of various key castles some years before. His use of ''routier'' mercenaries in the central regions had rapidly eaten away his remaining support in this area too, which set the stage for a sudden collapse of Angevin power. John retreated back across the Channel in December, sending orders for the establishment of a fresh defensive line to the west of Chateau Gaillard.][ In March 1204, Gaillard fell. John's mother Eleanor died the following month.][ This was not just a personal blow for John, but threatened to unravel the widespread Angevin alliances across the far south of France.][ Philip moved south around the new defensive line and struck upwards at the heart of the Duchy, now facing little resistance.][ By August, Philip had taken Normandy and advanced south to occupy Anjou and Poitou as well. John's only remaining possession on the Continent was now the ]Duchy of Aquitaine
The Duchy of Aquitaine ( oc, Ducat d'Aquitània, ; french: Duché d'Aquitaine, ) was a historical fiefdom in western, central, and southern areas of present-day France to the south of the river Loire, although its extent, as well as its name, flu ...
.[Turner, p.103.]
Aftermath
The struggle for Normandy was renewed a decade later. In 1214, when Pope Innocent III
Pope Innocent III ( la, Innocentius III; 1160 or 1161 – 16 July 1216), born Lotario dei Conti di Segni (anglicized as Lothar of Segni), was the head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 8 January 1198 to his death in 16 ...
assembled an alliance of states against France, John registered in. In the Battle of Bouvines
The Battle of Bouvines was fought on 27 July 1214 near the town of Bouvines in the County of Flanders. It was the concluding battle of the Anglo-French War of 1213–1214. Although estimates on the number of troops vary considerably among mod ...
, the allied forces met those of Philip II. The French used couched lances to slay the Anglo-Flemish-German army's troops down to a formation of mercenary units.
Following this decisive defeat, John faced unrest in his kingdom, and was forced to sign the Magna Carta
(Medieval Latin for "Great Charter of Freedoms"), commonly called (also ''Magna Charta''; "Great Charter"), is a royal charter of rights agreed to by King John of England at Runnymede, near Windsor, on 15 June 1215. First drafted by t ...
to appease the English nobility.
Footnotes
Notes
References
*
* F.M. Powicke, ''The Loss of Normandy (1189-1204)''
*
{{DEFAULTSORT:Normandy campaigns of 1200-1204
Conflicts in 1202
Conflicts in 1203
Conflicts in 1204
Anglo-French wars
1200s in Europe
Military history of Normandy
1200s in France
13th-century military history of the Kingdom of England
Wars of succession involving the states and peoples of Europe
Philip II of France
John, King of England