François Poullain de la Barre (; July 1647 – 4 May 1723) was an author,

Catholic priest The priesthood is the office of the ministers of religion, who have been commissioned ("ordained") with the Holy orders of the Catholic Church. Technically, bishops are a priestly order as well; however, in layman's terms ''priest'' refers only ...

, and a

Cartesian Cartesian means of or relating to the French philosopher René Descartes—from his Latinized name ''Cartesius''. It may refer to: Mathematics *Cartesian closed category, a closed category in category theory *Cartesian coordinate system, modern ...

philosopher.

Life

François Poullain de la Barre was born on July 1647 in Paris, France, to a family with judicial nobility. He added "de la Barre" to his name later in life. After graduating in 1663 with a master of arts, he spent three years at the

College of Sorbonne The College of Sorbonne (french: Collège de Sorbonne) was a theological college of the University of Paris, founded in 1253 (confirmed in 1257) by Robert de Sorbon (1201–1274), after whom it was named. With the rest of the Paris colleges, ...

where he studied theology. In 1679, he became an ordained

Catholic The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics worldwide . It is among the world's oldest and largest international institutions, and has played a ...

priest. From 1679 to 1688, he led two modest parishes, Versigny and La Flamengrie, in

Picardy Picardy (; Picard and french: Picardie, , ) is a historical territory and a former administrative region of France. Since 1 January 2016, it has been part of the new region of Hauts-de-France. It is located in the northern part of France. Hi ...

in northern France. In 1688, Poullaine de la Barre left

and the priesthood to return to

Paris Paris () is the capital and most populous city of France, with an estimated population of 2,165,423 residents in 2019 in an area of more than 105 km² (41 sq mi), making it the 30th most densely populated city in the world in 2020. S ...

. At the time the Catholic Church was critical of Cartesianism. By 1689 he moved to

Geneva Geneva ( ; french: Genève ) frp, Genèva ; german: link=no, Genf ; it, Ginevra ; rm, Genevra is the List of cities in Switzerland, second-most populous city in Switzerland (after Zürich) and the most populous city of Romandy, the French-speaki ...

where he converted to

Calvinism Calvinism (also called the Reformed Tradition, Reformed Protestantism, Reformed Christianity, or simply Reformed) is a major branch of Protestantism that follows the theological tradition and forms of Christian practice set down by John Cal ...

, a branch of

Protestantism Protestantism is a branch of Christianity that follows the theological tenets of the Protestant Reformation, a movement that began seeking to reform the Catholic Church from within in the 16th century against what its followers perceived to b ...

. The following year, he married Marie Ravier. After a year as a tutor, he got a position teaching at a local Genevan university. After the

Edict of Fontainebleau The Edict of Fontainebleau (22 October 1685) was an edict issued by French King Louis XIV and is also known as the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. The Edict of Nantes (1598) had granted Huguenots the right to practice their religion without s ...

revoked the

Edict of Nantes The Edict of Nantes () was signed in April 1598 by King Henry IV and granted the Calvinist Protestants of France, also known as Huguenots, substantial rights in the nation, which was in essence completely Catholic. In the edict, Henry aimed pr ...

, he was exiled in the

Republic of Geneva The Canton of Geneva, officially the Republic and Canton of Geneva (french: link=no, République et canton de Genève; frp, Rèpublica et canton de Geneva; german: Republik und Kanton Genf; it, Repubblica e Cantone di Ginevra; rm, Republica e ...

, where he obtained the citizenship (bourgeoisie) in 1716. He spent the remainder of his life in Geneva, where he died on 4 May 1723.

Work

During a physiology conference in 1667 a friend of Poullain de la Barre introduced him to

Cartesianism Cartesianism is the philosophical and scientific system of René Descartes and its subsequent development by other seventeenth century thinkers, most notably François Poullain de la Barre, Nicolas Malebranche and Baruch Spinoza. Descartes is of ...

, the philosophy of

René Descartes René Descartes ( or ; ; Latinized: Renatus Cartesius; 31 March 1596 – 11 February 1650) was a French philosopher, scientist, and mathematician, widely considered a seminal figure in the emergence of modern philosophy and science. Mathem ...

. Poullain de la Barre later adopted the philosophy and applied Cartesian principles to

feminist Feminism is a range of socio-political movements and ideologies that aim to define and establish the political, economic, personal, and social equality of the sexes. Feminism incorporates the position that society prioritizes the male po ...

thought and wrote many texts of

social philosophy Social philosophy examines questions about the foundations of social institutions, social behavior, and interpretations of society in terms of ethical values rather than empirical relations. Social philosophers emphasize understanding the social ...

which denounced injustice against

woman A woman is an adult female human. Prior to adulthood, a female human is referred to as a girl (a female child or adolescent). The plural ''women'' is sometimes used in certain phrases such as "women's rights" to denote female humans regardl ...

and by the inequality of the female condition. He opposed the

discrimination Discrimination is the act of making unjustified distinctions between people based on the groups, classes, or other categories to which they belong or are perceived to belong. People may be discriminated on the basis of race, gender, age, relig ...

women experienced and championed

social equality Social equality is a state of affairs in which all individuals within a specific society have equal rights, liberties, and status, possibly including civil rights, freedom of expression, autonomy, and equal access to certain public goods and ...

between women and men. Six years after his introduction to Cartesianism, Poullain de la Barre published a three part series on the female condition. In 1673 he published ''On the Equality of the Two Sexes:'' ''A Physical and Moral Discourse, Which Shows That it is Important to Rid Oneself of Prejudice'', which argued that the difference between men and women goes beyond the body, but is in the "constitution of the body". He rejected the idea that the minds of men and women differ, historically proclaiming "the mind has no sex". In claiming sexual difference lies in part through the "constitution of the body", Poullain de la Barre argued the unequal treatment that women experience in religious and educational instruction, and the effects of the environment, create a perceived apparent innate difference between the sexes. In his assessment, this does not have a natural basis, it is not essential nor is it innate, but proceeds from cultural prejudice, and can be understood as

social constructionist Social constructionism is a theory in sociology, social ontology, and communication theory which proposes that certain ideas about physical reality arise from collaborative consensus, instead of pure observation of said reality. The theor ...

. Poullain de la Barre advocated for female education, emphasizing that women should receive a true and quality education. He also asserted that all careers, including scientific ones, should be open to them.
De l’Égalité des deux sexes, discours physique et moral où l’on voit l’importance de se défaire des préjugez
', 2nd edition, Paris, 1679 (annotated transcript in modern French spelling) In 1674, he published ''On the Education of Ladies:'' ''To Guide the Mind in Sciences and Morals'', continuing his reflection on the education of women, but utilizing Socratic dialogue. He addresses the historical constrains of the time. In 1675 François Poullain de la Barre published the third in his series, ''On the Excellence of Men:'' ''Against the Equality of the Sexes''". The title was sarcastic; the book was a rebuttal of those opposed to gender equality.

Responses and critiques

Opinions about Poullain de la Barre's place in the history of feminism vary considerably, but his theories have often been used by others, such as

Jean-Jacques Rousseau Jean-Jacques Rousseau (, ; 28 June 1712 – 2 July 1778) was a Genevan philosopher, writer, and composer. His political philosophy influenced the progress of the Age of Enlightenment throughout Europe, as well as aspects of the French Revolu ...

Pierre Bayle Pierre Bayle (; 18 November 1647 – 28 December 1706) was a French philosopher, author, and lexicographer. A Huguenot, Bayle fled to the Dutch Republic in 1681 because of religious persecution in France. He is best known for his '' Historica ...

has advanced the theory that Poullain may have refuted his own thesis because he felt threatened, but the arguments

antifeminist Antifeminism, also spelled anti-feminism, is opposition to some or all forms of feminism. In the late 19th century and early 20th century, antifeminists opposed particular policy proposals for women's rights, such as the right to vote, educat ...

s advanced are doubtful of this refutation.

Simone de Beauvoir Simone Lucie Ernestine Marie Bertrand de Beauvoir (, ; ; 9 January 1908 – 14 April 1986) was a French existentialist philosopher, writer, social theorist, and feminist activist. Though she did not consider herself a philosopher, and even th ...

includes a quotation from Poullain de la Barre in an epigraph to ''

The Second Sex ''The Second Sex'' (french: Le Deuxième Sexe, link=no) is a 1949 book by the French existentialist philosopher Simone de Beauvoir, in which the author discusses the treatment of women in the present society as well as throughout all of history ...

'' in 1949: "All that has been written about women by men should be suspect, for the men are at once judge and party."

Works

*
De l’Éducation des dames pour la conduite de l’esprit dans les sciences et dans les mœurs
', Paris, J. Du Puis, 1674 *
De l’Excellence des hommes contre l’égalité des sexes
', Paris, J. Du Puis, 1675 *
De l’Égalité des deux sexes, discours physique et moral où l’on voit l’importance de se défaire des préjugez
', Paris, J. Du Puis, 1676 *
De l’Égalité des deux sexes, discours physique et moral où l’on voit l’importance de se défaire des préjugez
', 2nd edition, Paris, 1679 (annotated transcript in modern French spelling) *''La Doctrine des protestans sur la liberté de lire l’Ecriture sainte, le service divin en langue entenduë, l’invocation des saints, le sacrement de l’Eucharistie'', Genève, 1720.

References

External links

''Siep STUURMAN:'' François Poulain de la Barre and the Invention of Modern Equality''. Cambridge (Mass.), Harvard University Press, 2004, X-361 pages
', book reviewby Marie-Frédérique Pellegrin and Nicole Pellegrin *
XVIIIème siècle: La femme entre nature et société
' on Thucydide {{DEFAULTSORT:Poullain De La Barre, Francois 1647 births 1723 deaths 17th-century philosophers Converts to Calvinism from Roman Catholicism Feminist philosophers French feminists French philosophers Philosophers from the Republic of Geneva Writers from the Republic of Geneva French Protestants Male feminists Calvinist and Reformed philosophers Writers from Paris French male non-fiction writers 17th-century male writers Cartesianism