The or (
Latin
Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through ...
for "Jewish tax") was a
tax imposed on
Jews in the Roman Empire
The history of the Jews in the Roman Empire ( la, Iudaeorum Romanum) traces the interaction of Jews and Romans during the period of the Roman Empire (27 BCE – CE 476). A Jewish diaspora had migrated to Rome and to the territories of Roman ...
after the
destruction of Jerusalem and its Temple in AD 70.
Revenues were directed to the
Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus in
Rome
, established_title = Founded
, established_date = 753 BC
, founder = King Romulus ( legendary)
, image_map = Map of comune of Rome (metropolitan city of Capital Rome, region Lazio, Italy).svg
, map_caption ...
.
The tax measure improved Rome's finances and also worked as a deterrent against proselytizing.
Those who paid the tax did not have to sacrifice to
Roman gods
The Roman deities most widely known today are those the Romans identified with Greek counterparts (see '' interpretatio graeca''), integrating Greek myths, iconography, and sometimes religious practices into Roman culture, including Latin li ...
.
Contemporary sources
Modern knowledge of the fiscus Judaicus is found in four
primary source
In the study of history as an academic discipline, a primary source (also called an original source) is an artifact, document, diary, manuscript, autobiography, recording, or any other source of information that was created at the time under ...
s:
* A small number of
Roman Egypt
, conventional_long_name = Roman Egypt
, common_name = Egypt
, subdivision = Province
, nation = the Roman Empire
, era = Late antiquity
, capital = Alexandria
, title_leader = Praefectus Augustalis
, image_map = Roman E ...
ian tax receipts
* A passage from ''
The Jewish War
''The Jewish War'' or ''Judean War'' (in full ''Flavius Josephus' Books of the History of the Jewish War against the Romans'', el, Φλαυίου Ἰωσήπου ἱστορία Ἰουδαϊκοῦ πολέμου πρὸς Ῥωμαίους ...
'' by
Josephus
Flavius Josephus (; grc-gre, Ἰώσηπος, ; 37 – 100) was a first-century Romano-Jewish historian and military leader, best known for '' The Jewish War'', who was born in Jerusalem—then part of Roman Judea—to a father of priestly ...
* A passage from ''
The Twelve Caesars
''De vita Caesarum'' (Latin; "About the Life of the Caesars"), commonly known as ''The Twelve Caesars'', is a set of twelve biographies of Julius Caesar and the first 11 emperors of the Roman Empire written by Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus. The gr ...
'' by
Suetonius
Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus (), commonly referred to as Suetonius ( ; c. AD 69 – after AD 122), was a Roman historian who wrote during the early Imperial era
The Roman Empire ( la, Imperium Romanum ; grc-gre, Βασιλεία τ� ...
* A passage from the ''Roman History'' by
Cassius Dio
Lucius Cassius Dio (), also known as Dio Cassius ( ), was a Roman historian and senator of maternal Greek origin. He published 80 volumes of the history on ancient Rome, beginning with the arrival of Aeneas in Italy. The volumes documented the ...
Imposition
The tax was initially imposed by
Roman emperor Vespasian
Vespasian (; la, Vespasianus ; 17 November AD 9 – 23/24 June 79) was a Roman emperor who reigned from AD 69 to 79. The fourth and last emperor who reigned in the Year of the Four Emperors, he founded the Flavian dynasty that ruled the Emp ...
as one of the
measures against Jews as a result of the
First Roman-Jewish War, or first Jewish revolt of AD 66–73. The tax was imposed on all Jews throughout the empire, not just on those who took part in the revolt against Rome. The tax was imposed after the
destruction of the Second Temple in AD 70 in place of the levy (or
tithe
A tithe (; from Old English: ''teogoþa'' "tenth") is a one-tenth part of something, paid as a contribution to a religious organization or compulsory tax to government. Today, tithes are normally voluntary and paid in cash or cheques or more ...
) payable by Jews towards the upkeep of the Temple. The amount levied was two
denarii
The denarius (, dēnāriī ) was the standard Roman silver coin from its introduction in the Second Punic War to the reign of Gordian III (AD 238–244), when it was gradually replaced by the antoninianus. It continued to be minted in very ...
, equivalent to the one-half of a
shekel
Shekel or sheqel ( akk, 𒅆𒅗𒇻 ''šiqlu'' or ''siqlu,'' he, שקל, plural he, שקלים or shekels, Phoenician: ) is an ancient Mesopotamian coin, usually of silver. A shekel was first a unit of weight—very roughly —and became c ...
that observant Jews had previously
paid for the upkeep of the Temple of Jerusalem. The tax was to go instead to the
Temple of Capitoline Jupiter, the major center of
ancient Roman religion
Religion in ancient Rome consisted of varying imperial and provincial religious practices, which were followed both by the people of Rome as well as those who were brought under its rule.
The Romans thought of themselves as highly religious, ...
. The ''fiscus Iudaicus'' was a humiliation for the Jews. In Rome, a special
procurator
Procurator (with procuracy or procuratorate referring to the office itself) may refer to:
* Procurator, one engaged in procuration, the action of taking care of, hence management, stewardship, agency
* ''Procurator'' (Ancient Rome), the title o ...
known as ''procurator ad capitularia Iudaeorum'' was responsible for the collection of the tax.
["Fiscus Judaicus", '']Encyclopaedia Judaica
The ''Encyclopaedia Judaica'' is a 22-volume English-language encyclopedia of the Jewish people, Judaism, and Israel. It covers diverse areas of the Jewish world and civilization, including Jewish history of all eras, culture, holidays, langu ...
'' Only those who had abandoned Judaism were exempt from paying it.
While the tax paid for the Temple of Jerusalem was payable only by adult men between the ages of 20 and 50, the ''fiscus Iudaicus'' was imposed on all Jews, including women, children, and elderly—and even Jewish slaves. In
Egypt
Egypt ( ar, مصر , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a List of transcontinental countries, transcontinental country spanning the North Africa, northeast corner of Africa and Western Asia, southwest corner of Asia via a land bridg ...
, the documentary evidence (in the form of receipts) confirms the payment of the tax by women and children. The oldest person known from these receipts to have paid the ''fiscus Iudaicus'' was a 61-year-old woman, which led Sherman LeRoy Wallace to conjecture that the tax was levied only until the age of 62, as was the regular
Roman poll tax paid by individuals throughout the Empire.
The tax was continued even after the completion of the reconstruction of the Capitoline temple for its upkeep.
Domitian
Domitian
Domitian (; la, Domitianus; 24 October 51 – 18 September 96) was a Roman emperor who reigned from 81 to 96. The son of Vespasian and the younger brother of Titus, his two predecessors on the throne, he was the last member of the Fl ...
, who ruled between 81 and 96 AD, expanded the ''fiscus Iudaicus'' to include not only born Jews and
converts to Judaism, but also those who concealed the fact that they were Jews or observed Jewish customs.
Suetonius
Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus (), commonly referred to as Suetonius ( ; c. AD 69 – after AD 122), was a Roman historian who wrote during the early Imperial era
The Roman Empire ( la, Imperium Romanum ; grc-gre, Βασιλεία τ� ...
relates that when he was young, an old man of 90 was examined to see whether he was
circumcised
Circumcision is a procedure that removes the foreskin from the human penis. In the most common form of the operation, the foreskin is extended with forceps, then a circumcision device may be placed, after which the foreskin is excised. Topic ...
, which shows that during this period the tax was levied even on those above the age of 62.
Louis Feldman
Louis Harry Feldman (October 29, 1926 – March 25, 2017) was an American professor of classics and literature. He was the Abraham Wouk Family Professor of Classics and Literature at Yeshiva University, the institution at which he taught s ...
argues that the increased harshness was caused by the success of the Jewish (and possibly
Christian
Christians () are people who follow or adhere to Christianity, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. The words ''Christ'' and ''Christian'' derive from the Koine Greek title ''Christós'' (Χρι� ...
)
proselytism
Proselytism () is the policy of attempting to convert people's religious or political beliefs. Proselytism is illegal in some countries.
Some draw distinctions between ''evangelism'' or '' Da‘wah'' and proselytism regarding proselytism as invol ...
.
Domitian applied the tax even to those who merely
"lived like Jews":
Domitian's ruling opened the door to possibilities of
blackmail
Blackmail is an act of coercion using the threat of revealing or publicizing either substantially true or false information about a person or people unless certain demands are met. It is often damaging information, and it may be revealed to fa ...
in Rome and in all
Italy
Italy ( it, Italia ), officially the Italian Republic, ) or the Republic of Italy, is a country in Southern Europe. It is located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, and its territory largely coincides with the homonymous geographical ...
. Charges of following Judaism were easily made, but difficult to disprove, not least because the practices of certain philosophical sects resembled some Jewish customs. As a result, many people chose to settle with the accusers out of court rather than risk the uncertainties of judicial hearings, thus effectively encouraging the blackmailers.
Titus Flavius Clemens was put to death for "living a Jewish life" or "drifting into Jewish ways" in the year AD 95, which may well have been related to the administration of the ''fiscus Judaicus'' under Domitian.
Schism between Judaism and Christianity
The ''fiscus Iudaicus'' was originally imposed on Jews. At the time neither the Romans nor, probably, the
Christian
Christians () are people who follow or adhere to Christianity, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. The words ''Christ'' and ''Christian'' derive from the Koine Greek title ''Christós'' (Χρι� ...
s considered their religion to be separate from Judaism. If anything they would have considered themselves as a
Jewish sect. Jewish and non-Jewish Christians would therefore be liable to the tax, Marius Heemstra argues.
In 96 AD, Domitian's successor
Nerva
Nerva (; originally Marcus Cocceius Nerva; 8 November 30 – 27 January 98) was Roman emperor from 96 to 98. Nerva became emperor when aged almost 66, after a lifetime of imperial service under Nero and the succeeding rulers of the Flavian dy ...
reformed the administration of ''fiscus Iudaicus'' and redefined Judaism as a religion. This meant that Judaism was seen as distinct from Christianity and only those practising the former were liable to the tax.
This paved the way for the
Roman persecution of Christians
The persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire occurred, sporadically and usually locally, throughout the Roman Empire, beginning in the 1st century CE and ending in the 4th century CE. Originally a polytheistic empire in the traditions of R ...
that began a few years later and continued until the
Edict of Milan
The Edict of Milan ( la, Edictum Mediolanense; el, Διάταγμα τῶν Μεδιολάνων, ''Diatagma tōn Mediolanōn'') was the February 313 AD agreement to treat Christians benevolently within the Roman Empire. Frend, W. H. C. ( ...
in 313.
The coins of Nerva bear the legend ''fisci Iudaici
calumnia sublata'' "abolition of
malicious prosecution in connection with the Jewish tax," in reference to his reform of the harsh policies of
Domitian
Domitian (; la, Domitianus; 24 October 51 – 18 September 96) was a Roman emperor who reigned from 81 to 96. The son of Vespasian and the younger brother of Titus, his two predecessors on the throne, he was the last member of the Fl ...
.
Abolition
It remains unclear when exactly the ''fiscus Iudaicus'' was abolished. Documentary evidence confirms the collection of the tax in the middle of the
2nd century
The 2nd century is the period from 101 ( CI) through 200 ( CC) in accordance with the Julian calendar. It is considered part of the Classical era, epoch, or historical period.
Early in the century, the Roman Empire attained its greatest e ...
, and literary sources indicate that the tax was still in existence in the early
3rd century
The 3rd century was the period from 201 ( CCI) to 300 ( CCC) Anno Domini (AD) or Common Era (CE) in the Julian calendar..
In this century, the Roman Empire saw a crisis, starting with the assassination of the Roman Emperor Severus Alexande ...
. It is not known when the tax was formally abolished. Some historians credit the emperor
Julian with its abolition in about 361 or 362.
Medieval revival
The tax was revived in the
Middle Ages
In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the late 5th to the late 15th centuries, similar to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire ...
in 1342 under the name of
Opferpfennig by the
Holy Roman Emperor
The Holy Roman Emperor, originally and officially the Emperor of the Romans ( la, Imperator Romanorum, german: Kaiser der Römer) during the Middle Ages, and also known as the Roman-German Emperor since the early modern period ( la, Imperat ...
s. The Opferpfennig (originally Guldenpfennig) tax was introduced in 1342 by Emperor
Louis IV the Bavarian, who ordered all Jews above the age of 12 and possessing 20 gulden to pay one gulden annually for protection. The practice was justified on the grounds that the emperor, as the legal successor of the Roman emperors, was the rightful recipient of the
Temple tax which Jews paid to the Romans after the destruction of the
Second Temple
The Second Temple (, , ), later known as Herod's Temple, was the reconstructed Temple in Jerusalem between and 70 CE. It replaced Solomon's Temple, which had been built at the same location in the United Kingdom of Israel before being inherited ...
. The Opferpfennig was collected on
Christmas
Christmas is an annual festival commemorating the birth of Jesus Christ, observed primarily on December 25 as a religious and cultural celebration among billions of people around the world. A feast central to the Christian liturgical year ...
day.
Emperor
Charles IV later ordered the income of the Opferpfennig tax to be delivered to the archbishop of
Trier
Trier ( , ; lb, Tréier ), formerly known in English as Trèves ( ;) and Triers (see also names in other languages), is a city on the banks of the Moselle in Germany. It lies in a valley between low vine-covered hills of red sandstone in the ...
. This tax was at some places replaced by an overall communal tax.
OPFERPFENNIG. Encyclopaedia Judaica
2008.
See also
* Jewish poll tax
* Jizya
Jizya ( ar, جِزْيَة / ) is a per capita yearly taxation historically levied in the form of financial charge on dhimmis, that is, permanent non-Muslim subjects of a state governed by Islamic law. The jizya tax has been understood in ...
* Leibzoll
* Opferpfennig
* Rabbi tax
* Sicaricon
Sicaricon (), literally "usurping occupant; possessor of confiscated property; the law concerning the purchase of confiscated property" (now obsolete), refers in Jewish law to a former act and counter-measure meant to deal effectively with relig ...
* Tolerance tax
Notes
References
* Edwards, Douglas R. (1996).
Religion & Power: Pagans, Jews, and Christians in the Greek East
'. Oxford University Press.
* Feldman, Louis H. (1993).
Jew and Gentile in the Ancient World: Attitudes and Interactions from Alexander to Justinian
'. Princeton University Press.
* Radin, Max (1915).
The Jews among the Greeks and Romans
'. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America
* Schäfer, Peter (1998).
Judeophobia: Attitudes toward the Jews in the Ancient World
'. Harvard University Press.
* Stern, Menachem (1997). "Fiscus Judaicus". ''Encyclopaedia Judaica
The ''Encyclopaedia Judaica'' is a 22-volume English-language encyclopedia of the Jewish people, Judaism, and Israel. It covers diverse areas of the Jewish world and civilization, including Jewish history of all eras, culture, holidays, langu ...
'' (CD-ROM Edition Version 1.0). Ed. Cecil Roth. Keter Publishing House.
* O'Quin, Chris (2009).
The Fiscus Judaicus
.
* Heemstra, Marius (2010).
.
The Fiscus Judaicus and the Parting of the Ways
'. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck.
* {{cite book
, first=Martin , last=Goodman
, title=Judaism in the Roman World: Collected Essays
, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YVI2a9jc4pMC&pg=PA25
, year=2007, publisher=BRILL
, isbn=90-04-15309-8
External links
Jewish Encyclopedia: Fiscus Judaicus
"The 'New Cleopatra' and the Jewish Tax"
Biblical Archaeology Society
Austin Simmons, ''The Cipherment of the Franks Casket'' (PDF)
The fiscus Judaicus is depicted on the back side of the Franks Casket
The Franks Casket (or the Auzon Casket) is a small Anglo-Saxon whale's bone (not "whalebone" in the sense of baleen) chest from the early 8th century, now in the British Museum. The casket is densely decorated with knife-cut narrative scenes ...
.
Jews and Judaism in the Roman Empire
Jewish–Roman wars
Latin political words and phrases
Personal taxes
Roman law
Vespasian
History of taxation
Disabilities (Jewish) in Europe
Taxation in ancient Rome