Fusarium Udum
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''Fusarium'' is a large
genus Genus ( plural genera ) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of extant taxon, living and fossil organisms as well as Virus classification#ICTV classification, viruses. In the hierarchy of biological classification, genus com ...
of
filamentous The word filament, which is descended from Latin ''filum'' meaning " thread", is used in English for a variety of thread-like structures, including: Astronomy * Galaxy filament, the largest known cosmic structures in the universe * Solar filament ...
fungi A fungus ( : fungi or funguses) is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, separately from ...
, part of a group often referred to as hyphomycetes, widely distributed in soil and associated with plants. Most species are harmless saprobes, and are relatively abundant members of the soil microbial community. Some species produce mycotoxins in cereal crops that can affect human and animal health if they enter the food chain. The main toxins produced by these ''Fusarium'' species are fumonisins and
trichothecenes The trichothecenes are a large family of chemically related mycotoxins. They are produced by various species of ''Fusarium'', ''Myrothecium'', ''Trichoderma''/''Podostroma'', '' Trichothecium'', ''Cephalosporium'', '' Verticimonosporium'', and '' ...
. Despite most species apparently being harmless (some existing on the skin as commensal members of the
skin flora Skin flora, also called skin microbiota, refers to microbiota (communities of microorganisms) that reside on the skin, typically human skin. Many of them are bacteria of which there are around 1,000 species upon human skin from nineteen phyla.P ...
), some ''Fusarium'' species and subspecific groups are among the most important fungal pathogens of plants and animals. The name of ''Fusarium'' comes from Latin ''fusus'', meaning a
spindle Spindle may refer to: Textiles and manufacturing * Spindle (textiles), a straight spike to spin fibers into yarn * Spindle (tool), a rotating axis of a machine tool Biology * Common spindle and other species of shrubs and trees in genus ''Euony ...
.


Taxonomy

The taxonomy of the genus is complex. A number of different schemes have been used, and up to 1,000 species have been identified at times, with approaches varying between wide and narrow concepts of speciation (
lumpers and splitters Lumpers and splitters are opposing factions in any discipline that has to place individual examples into rigorously defined categories. The lumper–splitter problem occurs when there is the desire to create classifications and assign examples to ...
).
Phylogenetic In biology, phylogenetics (; from Greek φυλή/ φῦλον [] "tribe, clan, race", and wikt:γενετικός, γενετικός [] "origin, source, birth") is the study of the evolutionary history and relationships among or within groups o ...
studies indicate seven major clades within the genus. There is a proposed conceptwidely subscribed by specialiststhat would include essentially the genus as it now stands, including especially all agriculturally significant ''Fusaria''. There is a counterproposal (unrelated to ) that goes far in the other direction, with seven entirely new genera.


Subdivision

Various schemes have subdivided the genus into subgenera and sections. There is a poor correlation between sections and phylogenetic
clades A clade (), also known as a monophyletic group or natural group, is a group of organisms that are monophyletic – that is, composed of a common ancestor and all its lineal descendants – on a phylogenetic tree. Rather than the English term, t ...
. Sections previously described include: * ''Arachnites'' * ''Arthrosporiella'' * ''Discolour'' * ''Elegans'' * ''Eupionnotes'' * ''Gibbosum'' * ''Lateritium'' * ''Liseola'' * ''Martiella'' * ''Ventricosum'' * ''Roseum'' * ''Spicarioides'' * ''Sporotrichiella''


Species

Selected species include: * ''
Fusarium acaciae ''Fusarium acaciae'' is an anamorph fungus species of the genus ''Fusarium ''Fusarium'' is a large genus of filamentous fungi, part of a group often referred to as hyphomycetes, widely distributed in soil and associated with plants. Most spe ...
'' * ''
Fusarium fujikuroi ''Gibberella fujikuroi'' is a fungal plant pathogen. It causes ''bakanae'' disease in rice seedlings. Another name is foolish seedling disease. It gets that name because the seeds can be infected, leading to disparate outcomes for the plant. Th ...
'' * ''
Fusarium acaciae-mearnsii ''Fusarium acaciae-mearnsii'' is a fungus species of the genus ''Fusarium'' which produces zearalenone and zearalenol Zearalenol may refer to: * α-Zearalenol * β-Zearalenol See also * Zearalanol * Zearalenone Zearalenone (ZEN), also known ...
'' * '' Fusarium acutatum'' * '' Fusarium aderholdii'' * '' Fusarium acremoniopsis'' * '' Fusarium affine'' * '' Fusarium arthrosporioides'' * '' Fusarium avenaceum'' * '' Fusarium bubigeum'' * '' Fusarium circinatum'' * '' Fusarium crookwellense'' * '' Fusarium culmorum'' * ''
Fusarium graminearum ''Gibberella zeae'', also known by the name of its anamorph ''Fusarium graminearum'', is a fungal plant pathogen which causes fusarium head blight (FHB), a devastating disease on wheat and barley. The pathogen is responsible for billions of dolla ...
'' * '' Fusarium incarnatum'' * ''
Fusarium langsethiae ''Fusarium langsethiae'' is a species of fungus in the family Nectriaceae. It is a suspected plant pathogen. This species was isolated from oats, wheat and barley kernels in several European countries. It resembles '' Fusarium poae'', from whic ...
'' * ''
Fusarium mangiferae ''Fusarium mangiferae'' is a fungal plant pathogen that infects mango trees. Its aerial mycelium is white and floccose. Conidiophores on aerial mycelium originating erect and prostrate from substrate; they are sympodially branched bearing mono ...
'' * '' Fusarium merismoides'' * '' Fusarium oxysporum'' * ''
Fusarium pallidoroseum ''Fusarium pallidoroseum'' is a fungal A fungus ( : fungi or funguses) is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are c ...
'' * ''
Fusarium poae ''Fusarium'' is a large genus of filamentous fungi, part of a group often referred to as hyphomycetes, widely distributed in soil and associated with plants. Most species are harmless saprobes, and are relatively abundant members of the soil mi ...
'' * ''
Fusarium proliferatum ''Fusarium proliferatum'' is a fungal A fungus ( : fungi or funguses) is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are cl ...
'' * '' Fusarium pseudograminearum'' * '' Fusarium redolens'' * '' Fusarium sacchari'' * ''
Fusarium solani ''Fusarium solani'' is a species complex of at least 26 closely related filamentous fungi in the division Ascomycota, family Nectriaceae. It is the anamorph of ''Nectria haematococca''. It is a common soil fungus and colonist of plant materials ...
'' * ''
Fusarium sporotrichioides ''Fusarium sporotrichioides'' is a fungus, fungal plant pathogen, one of various ''Fusarium'' species responsible for damaging crops, in particular causing a condition known as Fusarium head blight in wheat, consequently being of notable agricult ...
'' * '' Fusarium sterilihyphosum'' * ''
Fusarium subglutinans ''Fusarium subglutinans'' is a fungal plant pathogen. Taxonomy ''Fusarium subglutinans'' is the anamorph of ''Gibberella fujikuroi''. Fusarium strains in the ''Gibberella fujikuroi'' species complex cause diseases in a number of economically im ...
'' * '' Fusarium sulphureum'' * '' Fusarium tricinctum'' * '' Fusarium udum'' * ''
Fusarium venenatum ''Fusarium venenatum'' is a microfungus of the genus ''Fusarium'' that has a high protein content. One of its strains is used commercially for the production of the single cell protein mycoprotein Quorn. ''Fusarium venenatum'' was discovered ...
'' * ''
Fusarium verticillioides ''Fusarium verticillioides'' is the most commonly reported fungal species infecting maize (''Zea mays''). ''Fusarium verticillioides'' is the accepted name of the species, which was also known as ''Fusarium moniliforme''. The species has also bee ...
'' * ''
Fusarium virguliforme Sudden death syndrome (SDS), a disease in soybean plants, quickly spread across the southern United States in the 1970s, eventually reaching most agricultural areas of the US. SDS is caused by a ''Fusarium'' fungi, more specifically the soil-born ...
'' * ''
Fusarium xyrophilum ''Fusarium'' is a large genus of filamentous fungi, part of a group often referred to as hyphomycetes, widely distributed in soil and associated with plants. Most species are harmless saprobes, and are relatively abundant members of the soil mic ...
''


Etymology

The name of ''Fusarium'' comes from Latin ''fusus'', meaning a
spindle Spindle may refer to: Textiles and manufacturing * Spindle (textiles), a straight spike to spin fibers into yarn * Spindle (tool), a rotating axis of a machine tool Biology * Common spindle and other species of shrubs and trees in genus ''Euony ...
.


Pathogen

The genus includes a number of economically important plant
pathogen In biology, a pathogen ( el, πάθος, "suffering", "passion" and , "producer of") in the oldest and broadest sense, is any organism or agent that can produce disease. A pathogen may also be referred to as an infectious agent, or simply a germ ...
ic species. ''
Fusarium graminearum ''Gibberella zeae'', also known by the name of its anamorph ''Fusarium graminearum'', is a fungal plant pathogen which causes fusarium head blight (FHB), a devastating disease on wheat and barley. The pathogen is responsible for billions of dolla ...
'' commonly infects barley if there is rain late in the season. It is of economic impact to the malting and brewing industries, as well as feed barley. ''Fusarium'' contamination in barley can result in head blight, and in extreme contaminations, the barley can appear pink.''Brewing Microbiology'', 3rd edition. Priest and Campbell, The genome of this wheat and maize pathogen has been sequenced. ''F. graminearum'' can also cause root rot and seedling blight. The total losses in the US of barley and wheat crops between 1991 and 1996 have been estimated at $3 billion. ''Fusarium oxysporum'' f.sp. ''cubense'' is a fungal plant pathogen that causes
Panama disease Panama disease (or Fusarium wilt) is a plant disease that infects banana plants (''Musa'' spp.). It is a wilting disease caused by the fungus ''Fusarium oxysporum'' f. sp. ''cubense'' (Foc). The pathogen is resistant to fungicides and its cont ...
of
banana A banana is an elongated, edible fruit – botanically a berry – produced by several kinds of large herbaceous flowering plants in the genus ''Musa''. In some countries, bananas used for cooking may be called "plantains", distinguis ...
(''Musa'' spp.), also known as fusarium wilt of banana. Panama disease affects a wide range of banana
cultivars A cultivar is a type of Horticulture, cultivated plant that people have selected for desired phenotypic trait, traits and when Plant propagation, propagated retain those traits. Methods used to propagate cultivars include: division, root and st ...
, which are propagated asexually from offshoots and therefore have very little genetic diversity. Panama disease is one of the most destructive plant diseases of modern times, and caused the commercial disappearance of the once dominant
Gros Michel Gros Michel (), often translated and known as "Big Mike", is an export cultivar of banana and was, until the 1950s, the main variety grown. The physical properties of the Gros Michel make it an excellent export produce; its thick peel makes it re ...
cultivar. A more recent strain also affects the Cavendish cultivars which commercially replaced Gros Michel. It is considered inevitable that this susceptibility will spread globally and commercially wipe out the Cavendish cultivar, for which there are currently no acceptable replacements. ''Fusarium oxysporum'' f. sp. ''narcissi'' causes rotting of the bulbs (basal rot) and yellowing of the leaves of daffodils (''
Narcissi ''Narcissus'' is a genus of predominantly spring flowering perennial plants of the amaryllis family, Amaryllidaceae. Various common names including daffodil,The word "daffodil" is also applied to related genera such as ''Sternbergia'', ''Ism ...
''). In 2021 it was discovered that ''
Fusarium xyrophilum ''Fusarium'' is a large genus of filamentous fungi, part of a group often referred to as hyphomycetes, widely distributed in soil and associated with plants. Most species are harmless saprobes, and are relatively abundant members of the soil mic ...
'' was able to hijack a South American species of yellow-eyed ''
Xyris ''Xyris'' is a genus of flowering plants, the yelloweyed grasses, in the yellow-eyed-grass family. The genus counts over 250 species, widespread over much of the world, with the center of distribution in the Guianas. The leaves are mostly dis ...
'' grass, creating fake flowers, fooling bees and other pollinating insects into visiting them, taking fungal spores to other plants.


In humans

Some species may cause a range of
opportunistic infection An opportunistic infection is an infection caused by pathogens (bacteria, fungi, parasites or viruses) that take advantage of an opportunity not normally available. These opportunities can stem from a variety of sources, such as a weakened immune ...
s in humans. In humans with normal immune systems, fusarial infections may occur in the nails (
onychomycosis Onychomycosis, also known as tinea unguium, is a fungal infection of the nail. Symptoms may include white or yellow nail discoloration, thickening of the nail, and separation of the nail from the nail bed. Toenails or fingernails may be affected ...
) and in the
cornea The cornea is the transparent front part of the eye that covers the iris, pupil, and anterior chamber. Along with the anterior chamber and lens, the cornea refracts light, accounting for approximately two-thirds of the eye's total optical power ...
(
keratomycosis Fungal keratitis is a fungal infection of the cornea, which can lead to blindness. It generally presents with a red, painful eye and blurred vision. There is also increased sensitivity to light, and excessive tears or discharge. It is caused ...
or mycotic keratitis). In humans whose immune systems are weakened in a particular way, (
neutropenia Neutropenia is an abnormally low concentration of neutrophils (a type of white blood cell) in the blood. Neutrophils make up the majority of circulating white blood cells and serve as the primary defense against infections by destroying bacteria ...
, i.e., very low
neutrophils Neutrophils (also known as neutrocytes or heterophils) are the most abundant type of granulocytes and make up 40% to 70% of all white blood cells in humans. They form an essential part of the innate immune system, with their functions varying in ...
count), aggressive fusarial infections penetrating the entire body and bloodstream (disseminated infections) may be caused by members of the ''
Fusarium solani ''Fusarium solani'' is a species complex of at least 26 closely related filamentous fungi in the division Ascomycota, family Nectriaceae. It is the anamorph of ''Nectria haematococca''. It is a common soil fungus and colonist of plant materials ...
'' complex, '' Fusarium oxysporum'', ''
Fusarium verticillioides ''Fusarium verticillioides'' is the most commonly reported fungal species infecting maize (''Zea mays''). ''Fusarium verticillioides'' is the accepted name of the species, which was also known as ''Fusarium moniliforme''. The species has also bee ...
'', ''
Fusarium proliferatum ''Fusarium proliferatum'' is a fungal A fungus ( : fungi or funguses) is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are cl ...
'' and, rarely, other fusarial species.


Research

The isolation medium for ''Fusaria'' is usually peptone PCNB agar (peptone pentachloronitrobenzene agar, PPA). For '' F. oxysporum'' specifically, Komada's medium is most common. Differential identification is difficult in some strains.
Vegetative compatibility group Vegetative describes vegetation. Vegetative may also refer to: *Vegetative reproduction, a type of asexual reproduction for plants *Persistent vegetative state, a condition of people with severe brain damage *Plant community A plant community is ...
analysis is best for some, is one usable method for others, and requires such a large number of assays that it is too complicated for yet others.


Use as human food

''
Fusarium venenatum ''Fusarium venenatum'' is a microfungus of the genus ''Fusarium'' that has a high protein content. One of its strains is used commercially for the production of the single cell protein mycoprotein Quorn. ''Fusarium venenatum'' was discovered ...
'' is produced industrially for use as a human food by Marlow Foods, Ltd., and is marketed under the name Quorn in
Europe Europe is a large peninsula conventionally considered a continent in its own right because of its great physical size and the weight of its history and traditions. Europe is also considered a Continent#Subcontinents, subcontinent of Eurasia ...
and
North America North America is a continent in the Northern Hemisphere and almost entirely within the Western Hemisphere. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Car ...
. Also, ''Fusarium str. yellowstonensis'' is under investigation for similar foods. Some consumers of fusarium products have shown food allergies similar in nature to
peanut The peanut (''Arachis hypogaea''), also known as the groundnut, goober (US), pindar (US) or monkey nut (UK), is a legume crop grown mainly for its edible Seed, seeds. It is widely grown in the tropics and subtropics, important to both small ...
and other food allergies. People with known sensitivities to molds should exercise caution when consuming such products.


Biological warfare

Mass casualties occurred in the
Soviet Union The Soviet Union,. officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR),. was a transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. A flagship communist state, it was nominally a federal union of fifteen national ...
in the 1930s and 1940s when ''Fusarium''-contaminated wheat flour was baked into bread, causing alimentary toxic aleukia with a 60% mortality rate. Symptoms began with
abdominal pain Abdominal pain, also known as a stomach ache, is a symptom Signs and symptoms are the observed or detectable signs, and experienced symptoms of an illness, injury, or condition. A sign for example may be a higher or lower temperature than ...
,
diarrhea Diarrhea, also spelled diarrhoea, is the condition of having at least three loose, liquid, or watery bowel movements each day. It often lasts for a few days and can result in dehydration due to fluid loss. Signs of dehydration often begin wi ...
,
vomiting Vomiting (also known as emesis and throwing up) is the involuntary, forceful expulsion of the contents of one's stomach through the mouth and sometimes the Human nose, nose. Vomiting can be the result of ailments like Food-poisoning, foo ...
, and
prostration Prostration is the gesture of placing one's body in a reverentially or submissively prone position. Typically prostration is distinguished from the lesser acts of bowing or kneeling by involving a part of the body above the knee, especially t ...
, and within days,
fever Fever, also referred to as pyrexia, is defined as having a body temperature, temperature above the human body temperature, normal range due to an increase in the body's temperature Human body temperature#Fever, set point. There is not a single ...
,
chills Chills is a feeling of coldness occurring during a high fever, but sometimes is also a common symptom which occurs alone in specific people. It occurs during fever due to the release of cytokines and prostaglandins as part of the inflammatory r ...
,
myalgia Myalgia (also called muscle pain and muscle ache in layman's terms) is the medical term for muscle pain. Myalgia is a symptom of many diseases. The most common cause of acute myalgia is the overuse of a muscle or group of muscles; another likel ...
s and
bone marrow Bone marrow is a semi-solid tissue found within the spongy (also known as cancellous) portions of bones. In birds and mammals, bone marrow is the primary site of new blood cell production (or haematopoiesis). It is composed of hematopoietic ce ...
depression with granulocytopenia and secondary
sepsis Sepsis, formerly known as septicemia (septicaemia in British English) or blood poisoning, is a life-threatening condition that arises when the body's response to infection causes injury to its own tissues and organs. This initial stage is follo ...
occurred. Further symptoms included pharyngeal or laryngeal ulceration and diffuse bleeding into the skin (
petechiae A petechia () is a small red or purple spot (≤4 mm in diameter) that can appear on the skin, conjunctiva, retina, and mucous membranes which is caused by haemorrhage of capillaries. The word is derived from Italian , 'freckle,' of obscure origin ...
and ecchymoses),
melena Melena or melaena refers to the dark black, tarry feces that are associated with upper gastrointestinal bleeding. The black color and characteristic strong odor are caused by hemoglobin in the blood being altered by digestive enzymes and intest ...
, bloody diarrhea, hematuria, hematemesis, epistaxis, vaginal bleeding,
pancytopenia Pancytopenia is a medical condition in which there is significant reduction in the number of almost all blood cells (red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, monocytes, lymphocytes, etc.). If only two parameters from the complete blood coun ...
and gastrointestinal ulceration. ''Fusarium sporotrichoides'' contamination was found in affected grain in 1932, spurring research for medical purposes and for use in biological warfare. The active ingredient was found to be
trichothecene The trichothecenes are a large family of chemically related mycotoxins. They are produced by various species of ''Fusarium'', ''Myrothecium'', ''Trichoderma''/''Podostroma'', '' Trichothecium'', ''Cephalosporium'', '' Verticimonosporium'', and '' ...
T-2 mycotoxin, and it was produced in quantity and weaponized prior to the passage of the Biological Weapons Convention in 1972. The Soviets were accused of using the agent, dubbed "
yellow rain Yellow rain was a 1981 political incident in which the United States Secretary of State Alexander Haig accused the Soviet Union of supplying T-2 mycotoxin to the Communist states in Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia for use in counterinsurgency warfare. ...
", to cause 6,300 deaths in
Laos Laos (, ''Lāo'' )), officially the Lao People's Democratic Republic ( Lao: ສາທາລະນະລັດ ປະຊາທິປະໄຕ ປະຊາຊົນລາວ, French: République démocratique populaire lao), is a socialist ...
,
Kampuchea Cambodia (; also Kampuchea ; km, កម្ពុជា, UNGEGN: ), officially the Kingdom of Cambodia, is a country located in the southern portion of the Indochinese Peninsula in Southeast Asia, spanning an area of , bordered by Thailand t ...
, and
Afghanistan Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan,; prs, امارت اسلامی افغانستان is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central Asia and South Asia. Referred to as the Heart of Asia, it is bordere ...
between 1975 and 1981. The "biological warfare agent" was later purported to be merely bee
feces Feces ( or faeces), known colloquially and in slang as poo and poop, are the solid or semi-solid remains of food that was not digested in the small intestine, and has been broken down by bacteria in the large intestine. Feces contain a relati ...
, but the issue remains disputed.


Pest

Fusarium has posed a threat to the ancient cave paintings in
Lascaux Lascaux ( , ; french: Grotte de Lascaux , "Lascaux Cave") is a network of caves near the village of Montignac, in the department of Dordogne in southwestern France. Over 600 parietal wall paintings cover the interior walls and ceilings of ...
since 1955, when the caves were first opened to visitors. The caves subsequently closed and the threat subsided, but the installation of an air conditioning system in 2000 caused another outbreak of the fungus which is yet to be resolved.


Microbiota

Fusarium may be part of microbiota including digestive as well as oral/dental, there have been rare cases o
Fusariosis
presenting as a necrotic ulceration of the gingiva, extending to the alveolar bone has been reported in a granulocytopenic patient.


References


Bibliography

* * * *


External links



* ttps://web.archive.org/web/20140315035807/http://www.bugwood.org/container/fusarium.html ''Fusarium'' Root Rot in Container Tree Nurseries
''Fusarium'' Blight on Turfgrass



Evolution of ''Fusarium'' taxonomy. FAO 2014


*
Simple explanation of ''Fusarium''. FAO 2014
{{Authority control Fungal plant pathogens and diseases Animal diseases Nectriaceae genera