architecture Architecture is the art and technique of designing and building, as distinguished from the skills associated with construction. It is both the process and the product of sketching, conceiving, planning, designing, and constructing building ...

, functionalism is the principle that buildings should be designed based solely on their purpose and function. This principle is a matter of confusion and controversy within the profession, particularly in regard to

modern architecture Modern architecture, or modernist architecture, was an architectural movement or architectural style based upon new and innovative technologies of construction, particularly the use of glass, steel, and reinforced concrete; the idea that form ...

, as it is less self-evident than it first appears. The theoretical articulation of functionalism in buildings can be traced back to the

Vitruvian The ''Vitruvian Man'' ( it, L'uomo vitruviano; ) is a drawing by the Italian Renaissance artist and scientist Leonardo da Vinci, dated to . Inspired by the writings by the ancient Roman architect Vitruvius, the drawing depicts a nude man in two s ...

triad, where ''utilitas'' (variously translated as 'commodity', 'convenience', or 'utility') stands alongside ''firmitas'' (firmness) and ''venustas'' (beauty) as one of three classic goals of architecture. Functionalist views were typical of some

Gothic Revival Gothic Revival (also referred to as Victorian Gothic, neo-Gothic, or Gothick) is an architectural movement that began in the late 1740s in England. The movement gained momentum and expanded in the first half of the 19th century, as increasingly ...

architects. In particular,

Augustus Welby Pugin Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin ( ; 1 March 181214 September 1852) was an English architect, designer, artist and critic with French and, ultimately, Swiss origins. He is principally remembered for his pioneering role in the Gothic Revival st ...

wrote that "there should be no features about a building which are not necessary for convenience, construction, or propriety" and "all ornament should consist of enrichment of the essential construction of the building". In the wake of

World War I World War I (28 July 1914 11 November 1918), often abbreviated as WWI, was one of the deadliest global conflicts in history. Belligerents included much of Europe, the Russian Empire, the United States, and the Ottoman Empire, with fightin ...

, an international functionalist architecture movement emerged as part of the wave of

Modernism Modernism is both a philosophy, philosophical and arts movement that arose from broad transformations in Western world, Western society during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The movement reflected a desire for the creation of new fo ...

. The ideas were largely inspired by the need to build a new and better world for the people, as broadly and strongly expressed by the social and political movements of Europe after the extremely devastating world war. In this respect, functionalist architecture is often linked with the ideas of

socialism Socialism is a left-wing economic philosophy and movement encompassing a range of economic systems characterized by the dominance of social ownership of the means of production as opposed to private ownership. As a term, it describes the e ...

and modern

humanism Humanism is a philosophical stance that emphasizes the individual and social potential and agency of human beings. It considers human beings the starting point for serious moral and philosophical inquiry. The meaning of the term "humani ...

. A new slight addition to this new wave of functionalism was that not only should buildings and houses be designed around the purpose of functionality, architecture should also be used as a means to physically create a better world and a better life for people in the broadest sense. This new functionalist architecture had the strongest impact in

Czechoslovakia , rue, Чеськословеньско, , yi, טשעכאסלאוואקיי, , common_name = Czechoslovakia , life_span = 1918–19391945–1992 , p1 = Austria-Hungary , image_p1 ...

Germany Germany,, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It is the second most populous country in Europe after Russia, and the most populous member state of the European Union. Germany is situated betwe ...

Poland Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe. It is divided into 16 administrative provinces called voivodeships, covering an area of . Poland has a population of over 38 million and is the fifth-most populous ...

, the

USSR The Soviet Union,. officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR),. was a transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. A flagship communist state, it was nominally a federal union of fifteen nationa ...

and the

Netherlands ) , anthem = ( en, "William of Nassau") , image_map = , map_caption = , subdivision_type = Sovereign state , subdivision_name = Kingdom of the Netherlands , established_title = Before independence , established_date = Spanish Netherl ...

, and from the 1930s also in

Scandinavia Scandinavia; Sámi languages: /. ( ) is a subregion#Europe, subregion in Northern Europe, with strong historical, cultural, and linguistic ties between its constituent peoples. In English usage, ''Scandinavia'' most commonly refers to Denmark, ...

and

Finland Finland ( fi, Suomi ; sv, Finland ), officially the Republic of Finland (; ), is a Nordic country in Northern Europe. It shares land borders with Sweden to the northwest, Norway to the north, and Russia to the east, with the Gulf of B ...

. Structural Functionalism Structural functionalism can better put as simply functionalism, which is a framework for erecting a theory that views a society as a compound system that promotes solidarity and stability. This methodology looks at a society through a large orientation level which has a wide focus on the social structures that sharpen the society as a whole and believes that society has grown like an organism.

History of functionalism

In 1896, Chicago architect

Louis Sullivan Louis Henry Sullivan (September 3, 1856 – April 14, 1924) was an American architect, and has been called a "father of skyscrapers" and "father of modernism". He was an influential architect of the Chicago School, a mentor to Frank Lloy ...

coined the phrase

Form follows function Form follows function is a principle of design associated with late 19th and early 20th century architecture and industrial design in general, which states that the shape of a building or object should primarily relate to its intended function ...

. However, this aphorism does not relate to a contemporary understanding of the term 'function' as utility or the satisfaction of user needs; it was instead based in metaphysics, as the expression of organic essence and could be paraphrased as meaning 'destiny'. In the mid-1930s, functionalism began to be discussed as an aesthetic approach rather than a matter of design integrity (use). The idea of functionalism was conflated with a lack of ornamentation, which is a different matter. It became a pejorative term associated with the baldest and most brutal ways to cover space, like cheap commercial buildings and sheds, then finally used, for example in academic criticism of

Buckminster Fuller Richard Buckminster Fuller (; July 12, 1895 – July 1, 1983) was an American architect, systems theorist, writer, designer, inventor, philosopher, and futurist. He styled his name as R. Buckminster Fuller in his writings, publishing more t ...

geodesic dome A geodesic dome is a hemispherical thin-shell structure (lattice-shell) based on a geodesic polyhedron. The triangular elements of the dome are structurally rigid and distribute the structural stress throughout the structure, making geodesic dom ...

s, simply as a synonym for 'gauche'. For 70 years the influential American architect

Philip Johnson Philip Cortelyou Johnson (July 8, 1906 – January 25, 2005) was an American architect best known for his works of modern and postmodern architecture. Among his best-known designs are his modernist Glass House in New Canaan, Connecticut; the pos ...

held that the profession has no functional responsibility whatsoever, and this is one of the many views today. The position of postmodern architect

Peter Eisenman Peter Eisenman (born August 11, 1932) is an American architect. Considered one of the New York Five, Eisenman is known for his writing and speaking about architecture as well as his designs, which have been called high modernist or deconstructiv ...

is based on a user-hostile theoretical basis and even more extreme: "I don't do function."

Modernism

Popular notions of

are heavily influenced by the work of the Franco-Swiss architect

Le Corbusier Charles-Édouard Jeanneret (6 October 188727 August 1965), known as Le Corbusier ( , , ), was a Swiss-French architect, designer, painter, urban planner, writer, and one of the pioneers of what is now regarded as modern architecture. He was ...

and the German architect

Mies van der Rohe Ludwig Mies van der Rohe ( ; ; born Maria Ludwig Michael Mies; March 27, 1886August 17, 1969) was a German-American architect. He was commonly referred to as Mies, his surname. Along with Alvar Aalto, Le Corbusier, Walter Gropius and Frank Lloyd ...

. Both were functionalists at least to the extent that their buildings were radical simplifications of previous styles. In 1923, Mies van der Rohe was working in

Weimar Weimar is a city in the state of Thuringia, Germany. It is located in Central Germany between Erfurt in the west and Jena in the east, approximately southwest of Leipzig, north of Nuremberg and west of Dresden. Together with the neighbouri ...

Germany, and had begun his career of producing radically simplified, lovingly detailed structures that achieved Sullivan's goal of inherent architectural beauty. Le Corbusier famously said "a house is a machine for living in"; his 1923 book ''

Vers une architecture ''Vers une architecture'', recently translated into English as ''Toward an Architecture'' but commonly known as ''Towards a New Architecture'' after the 1927 translation by Frederick Etchells, is a collection of essays written by Le Corbusier (Ch ...

'' was, and still is, very influential, and his early built work such as the

Villa Savoye Villa Savoye () is a modernist villa and gatelodge in Poissy, on the outskirts of Paris. It was designed by the Swiss- French architect Le Corbusier and his cousin Pierre Jeanneret, and built between 1928 and 1931 using reinforced concrete.Courla ...

Poissy Poissy () is a commune in the Yvelines department in the Île-de-France region in north-central France. It is located in the western suburbs of Paris, from the centre of Paris. Inhabitants are called ''Pisciacais'' in French. Poissy is one of ...

France France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of Overseas France, overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic Ocean, Atlantic, Pacific Ocean, Pac ...

, is thought of as prototypically function.

In Europe

Czechoslovakia

The former

Czechoslovakia , rue, Чеськословеньско, , yi, טשעכאסלאוואקיי, , common_name = Czechoslovakia , life_span = 1918–19391945–1992 , p1 = Austria-Hungary , image_p1 ...

was an early adopter of the functionalist style, with notable examples such as

Villa Tugendhat Villa Tugendhat is an architecturally significant building in Brno, Czech Republic. It is one of the pioneering prototypes of modern architecture in Europe, and was designed by the German architects Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Lilly Reich. It w ...

Brno Brno ( , ; german: Brünn ) is a city in the South Moravian Region of the Czech Republic. Located at the confluence of the Svitava and Svratka rivers, Brno has about 380,000 inhabitants, making it the second-largest city in the Czech Republic ...

, designed by

in 1928,

Villa Müller The Villa Müller ( cs, Müllerova vila, german: Haus Müller) is a Modernist villa in Prague, Czech Republic built in 1930. It was designed by Adolf Loos as a residence for František Müller, co-owner of the Kapsa-Müller construction company f ...

Prague Prague ( ; cs, Praha ; german: Prag, ; la, Praga) is the capital and largest city in the Czech Republic, and the historical capital of Bohemia. On the Vltava river, Prague is home to about 1.3 million people. The city has a temperate ...

, designed by

Adolf Loos Adolf Franz Karl Viktor Maria Loos (; 10 December 1870 – 23 August 1933) was an Austrian and Czechoslovak architect, influential European theorist, and a polemicist of modern architecture. He was an inspiration to modernism and a widely-k ...

in 1930, and the majority of the city of

Zlín Zlín (in 1949–1989 Gottwaldov; ; german: Zlin) is a city in the Czech Republic. It has about 73,000 inhabitants. It is the seat of the Zlín Region and it lies on the Dřevnice river. It is known as an industrial centre. The development of the ...

, developed by the Bata shoe company as a factory town in the 1920s and designed by Le Corbusier's student

František Lydie Gahura František Lydie Gahura (10 October 1891 in Zlín – 15 September 1958 in Brno) was a Czeochslovak architect and sculptor. Career Gahura became famous for his collaboration on the architectural and urban design of the Czech city of Zlín. He ...

. Numerous villas, apartment buildings and interiors, factories, office blocks and department stores can be found in the functionalist style throughout the country, which industrialised rapidly in the early 20th century while embracing the

Bauhaus The Staatliches Bauhaus (), commonly known as the Bauhaus (), was a German art school operational from 1919 to 1933 that combined crafts and the fine arts.Oxford Dictionary of Art and Artists (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 4th edn., 200 ...

-style architecture that was emerging concurrently in Germany. Large urban extensions to Brno in particular contain numerous apartment buildings in the functionalist style, while the domestic interiors of

Plzeň Plzeň (; German and English: Pilsen, in German ) is a city in the Czech Republic. About west of Prague in western Bohemia, it is the Statutory city (Czech Republic), fourth most populous city in the Czech Republic with about 169,000 inhabita ...

are also notable for their application of functionalist principles. VT16 PD zahrada.jpg,

(Brno), 1928 by

Ludwig Mies van der Rohe Ludwig Mies van der Rohe ( ; ; born Maria Ludwig Michael Mies; March 27, 1886August 17, 1969) was a German-American architect. He was commonly referred to as Mies, his surname. Along with Alvar Aalto, Le Corbusier, Walter Gropius and Frank Lloyd ...

Villa-Mueller-Prag-2.jpg,

(Prague), 1930, by Adolf Loos Brno, Crematorium.jpg, Brno Crematorium (

), 1930, Ernst Wiesner Hotel Avion, Brno (May 2008).JPG, Hotel Avion (Brno), 1928,

Bohuslav Fuchs Bohuslav Fuchs (24 March 1895 in Všechovice – 18 September 1972 in Brno) was a Czech modernist architect. Life and career A mason by education, Fuchs studied with Jan Kotěra at the Academy of Fine Arts in Prague between 1916 and 1919, and ...

Bata Corporate Town.jpeg, Zlín, Czech Republic, factory city built by the Bata Company Památník Tomáše Bati.jpg,

Tomas Bata Memorial Tomas Bata Memorial ( cs, Památník Tomáše Bati) is functionalist building in Zlín, Czech Republic built in 1933. The Memorial was designed by the Czech architect František Lydie Gahura. History Tomas Bata Memorial is the most impressive ...

(Zlín) 1933 by

Nordic "funkis"

In Scandinavia and Finland, the international movement and ideas of modernist architecture became widely known among architects at the 1930 Stockholm Exhibition, under the guidance of director and Swedish architect

Gunnar Asplund Erik Gunnar Asplund (22 September 1885 – 20 October 1940) was a Swedish architect, mostly known as a key representative of Nordic Classicism of the 1920s, and during the last decade of his life as a major proponent of the modernist style whi ...

. Enthusiastic architects collected their ideas and inspirations in the manifesto ''

acceptera ''acceptera'' (1931) is a Swedish modern architecture manifesto written by architects Gunnar Asplund, Wolter Gahn, Sven Markelius, Eskil Sundahl, Uno Åhrén, and art historian Gregor Paulsson. Claiming that Swedish “building-art” (''byggnadsk ...

'' and in the years thereafter, a functionalist architecture emerged throughout Scandinavia. The genre involves some peculiar features unique to Scandinavia and it is often referred to as "funkis", to distinguish it from functionalism in general. Some of the common features are flat roofing,

stucco Stucco or render is a construction material made of aggregates, a binder, and water. Stucco is applied wet and hardens to a very dense solid. It is used as a decorative coating for walls and ceilings, exterior walls, and as a sculptural and a ...

ed walls, architectural glazing and well-lit rooms, an industrial expression and nautical-inspired details, including round windows. The global stock market crisis and economic meltdown in 1929, instigated the needs to use affordable materials, such as brick and concrete, and to build quickly and efficiently. These needs became another signature of the Nordic version of functionalist architecture, in particular in buildings from the 1930s, and carried over into modernist architecture when industrial serial production became much more prevalent after World War II. As most architectural styles, Nordic funkis was international in its scope and several architects designed Nordic funkis buildings throughout the region. Some of the most active architects working internationally with this style, includes

Edvard Heiberg Edvard Heiberg (11 June 1911, in Oslo – 10 June 2000, in Oslo) was a Norwegian director and engineer. Heiberg was the youngest son of barrister Axel Heiberg (1875–1952) and his wife Ragnhild Krohg (1879–1947). He had two brothers, ...

Arne Jacobsen Arne Emil Jacobsen, Hon. FAIA () 11 February 1902 – 24 March 1971) was a Danish architect and furniture designer. He is remembered for his contribution to architectural functionalism and for the worldwide success he enjoyed with simple we ...

and

Alvar Aalto Hugo Alvar Henrik Aalto (; 3 February 1898 – 11 May 1976) was a Finnish architect and designer. His work includes architecture, furniture, textiles and glassware, as well as sculptures and paintings. He never regarded himself as an artist, see ...

. Nordic funkis features prominently in Scandinavian urban architecture, as the need for urban housing and new institutions for the growing

welfare state A welfare state is a form of government in which the state (or a well-established network of social institutions) protects and promotes the economic and social well-being of its citizens, based upon the principles of equal opportunity, equitabl ...

s exploded after World War II. Funkis had its heyday in the 1930s and 1940s, but functionalist architecture continued to be built long into the 1960s. These later structures, however, tend to be categorized as modernism in a Nordic context.

Denmark

Vilhelm Lauritzen Vilhelm Lauritzen (9 September 1894 – 22 December 1984) was a leading Danish modern architect, founder of the still active architectural firm Vilhelm Lauritzen Arkitekter. Biography Vilhelm Lauritzen was born in Slagelse, Denmark. He studie ...

and C.F. Møller were among the most active and influential Danish architects of the new functionalist ideas and Arne Jacobsen,

Poul Kjærholm Poul Kjærholm (1929 – 1980) was a Danish designer. Born in Østervrå, Denmark, Kjærholm began his career as a cabinetmaker's apprentice with Gronbech in 1948, attending the Danish School of Arts and Crafts in Copenhagen in 1952. ...

Kaare Klint Kaare Klint (15 December 1888 – 28 March 1954) was a Danish architect and furniture designer, known as the father of modern Danish furniture design. Style was epitomized by clean, pure lines, use of the best materials of his time and super ...

, and others, extended the new approach to design in general, most notably furniture which evolved to become

Danish modern Danish modern is a style of minimalist furniture and housewares from Denmark associated with the Danish design movement. In the 1920s, Kaare Klint embraced the principles of Bauhaus modernism in furniture design, creating clean, pure lines based ...

. Some Danish designers and artists who did not work as architects are sometimes also included in the Danish functionalist movement, such as

Finn Juhl Finn Juhl (30 January 1912 – 17 May 1989) was a Danish architect, interior and industrial designer, most known for his furniture design. He was one of the leading figures in the creation of Danish design in the 1940s and he was the designe ...

Louis Poulsen Louis Poulsen is a Danish lighting manufacturer that was founded in 1874. Louis Poulsen Lighting is represented by subsidiaries, distribution offices and agents around the world. Their key sales regions are Scandinavia, Europe, Japan and United S ...

and

Poul Henningsen Poul Henningsen (9 September 1894 – 31 January 1967) was a Danish author, critic, architect, and designer. In Denmark, where he often is referred to simply as PH, he was one of the leading figures of the cultural life of Denmark between the Worl ...

. In Denmark, bricks were largely preferred over reinforced concrete as construction material, and this included funkis buildings. Apart from institutions and apartment blocks, more than 100,000 single-family funkis houses were built in the years 1925–1945. However, the truly dedicated funkis design was often approached with caution. Many residential buildings only included some signature funkis elements such as round windows, corner windows or architectural glazing to signal modernity while not provoking conservative traditionalists too much. This branch of restrained approach to the funkis design created the Danish version of the

bungalow A bungalow is a small house or cottage that is either single-story or has a second story built into a sloping roof (usually with dormer windows), and may be surrounded by wide verandas. The first house in England that was classified as a b ...

building. Fine examples of Danish functionalist architecture are the now listed

Kastrup Airport Copenhagen Airport, Kastrup ( da, Københavns Lufthavn, Kastrup, ; ) is an international airport serving Copenhagen, Denmark, Zealand, the Øresund Region, and southern Sweden including Scania. It is the second largest airport in the Nordic cou ...

1939 terminal by Vilhelm Lauritzen,

Aarhus University Aarhus University ( da, Aarhus Universitet, abbreviated AU) is a public research university with its main campus located in Aarhus, Denmark. It is the second largest and second oldest university in Denmark. The university is part of the Coimbra Gr ...

(by C. F. Møller et al.) and

Aarhus City Hall Aarhus City Hall is the city hall of Aarhus, Denmark. The decision to build a new city hall was taken during a city hall meeting in 1937. The new building was inaugurated 2 June 1941, designed by architects Arne Jacobsen and Erik Møller. On the ...

(by Arne Jacobsen et al.), all including furniture and lamps specially designed for these buildings in the functionalist spirit. The largest functionalist complex in the Nordic countries is the 30,000-sq. m. residential compound of

Hostrups Have Hostrups Have ( lit. "Hostrup's Garden") is a famous functionalist housing estate and associated green space located at the corner of Falkoner Allé and Rolighedsvej in the Frederiksberg district of Copenhagen, Denmark. Designed by Danish arc ...

in Copenhagen. Frederiksberg funkis, april 2004 (508279000).jpg, Det Grønne Funkishus (1932),

Frederiksberg Frederiksberg () is a part of the Capital Region of Denmark. It is formally an independent municipality, Frederiksberg Municipality, separate from Copenhagen Municipality, but both are a part of the City of Copenhagen. It occupies an area of ...

. Early funkis, facade detail. Arne Jacobsen Bellavista 2005-07.jpg, Bellavista (1934),

Klampenborg Klampenborg is a northern suburb to Copenhagen, Denmark. It is located in Gentofte Municipality, directly on Øresund, between Taarbæk and Skovshoved. Like other neighbourhoods along the Øresund coast, Klampenborg is an affluent area with many ...

Bakkegaarden.jpg, Bakkegården (1935–38),

Aarhus Aarhus (, , ; officially spelled Århus from 1948 until 1 January 2011) is the second-largest city in Denmark and the seat of Aarhus Municipality. It is located on the eastern shore of Jutland in the Kattegat sea and approximately northwest ...

Ib Lunding - Champagnehuset.jpg, Champagnehuset (1936),

Copenhagen Copenhagen ( or .; da, København ) is the capital and most populous city of Denmark, with a proper population of around 815.000 in the last quarter of 2022; and some 1.370,000 in the urban area; and the wider Copenhagen metropolitan ar ...

Skovvangskolen (facade).jpg, Skovvangsskolen (1937), Aarhus Frederiksgade 1.jpg, Frederiksgade no. 1 (1939), Aarhus Strandparken (grøn blok).jpg, Strandparken (1938), Aarhus. Typical

pastel colour A pastel () is an art medium in a variety of forms including a stick, a square a pebble or a pan of color; though other forms are possible; they consist of powdered pigment and a binder. The pigments used in pastels are similar to those us ...

for stuccoed funkis. The Standard (Havnegade).jpg, The Standard (1937), Copenhagen. Former custom house. Knippelsbro.jpg, Knippelsbro bridge (1935), Copenhagen Facade på Aarhus Rådhus.jpg,

(1941), Aarhus. Marble facade. Lyngby Rådhus - arkitekturbilleder.dk.jpg, Lyngby City Hall (1941),

Lyngby Kongens Lyngby (, Danish for "the King's Heather Town"; short form Lyngby) is the seat and commercial centre of Lyngby-Taarbæk Municipality in the northern suburbs of Copenhagen, Denmark. Lyngby Hovedgade is a busy shopping street and the site of ...

Dronningegården - balconies.jpg, Dronningegården (1958), Copenhagen. Late funkis. Psykologisk Institut, AU 03.jpg,

(1933 onwards) Aarhus university - fisker, møller, stegmann, sørensen 1931.jpg, Aarhus University. This building is from 1974.

Finland

Some of the most prolific and notable architects in Finland, working in the funkis style, includes

and

Erik Bryggman Erik William Bryggman (7 February 1891 – 21 December 1955) was a Finnish architect. He was born in Turku, the youngest of the five sons of Johan Ulrik Bryggman (1838–1911) and Wendla Gustava Bryggman (née Nordström) (1852–1903). H ...

who were both engaged from the very start in the 1930s. The

Turku Turku ( ; ; sv, Åbo, ) is a city and former capital on the southwest coast of Finland at the mouth of the Aura River, in the region of Finland Proper (''Varsinais-Suomi'') and the former Turku and Pori Province (''Turun ja Porin lääni''; ...

region pioneered this new style and the journal '' Arkkitehti'' mediated and discussed functionalism in a Finnish context. Many of the first buildings in the funkis style were industrial structures, institutions and offices but spread to other kinds of structures such as residential buildings, individual housing and churches. The functionalist design also spread to interior designs and furniture as exemplified by the iconic

Paimio Sanatorium Paimio Sanatorium ( fi, Paimion parantola, sv, Pemars sanatorium) is a former tuberculosis sanatorium in Paimio, Southwest Finland, designed by Finnish architect Alvar Aalto. Aalto received the design commission having won the architectural ...

, designed in 1929 and built in 1933.YIT
Functionalism is a Finnish thing
/ref> Aalto introduced standardised, precast concrete elements as early as the late 1920s, when he designed residential buildings in Turku. This technique became a cornerstone of later developments in modernist architecture after World War II, especially in the 1950s and 1960s. He also introduced serial produced wooden housing. Tennispalatsi Helsinki.jpg,

Tennispalatsi Tennispalatsi ( sv, Tennispalatset; lit. ''Tennis Palace''), is an enclosed cultural and recreational center in Kamppi, Helsinki, Finland. It houses a Finnkino multiplex movie theatre, the Helsinki City Art Museum, the Museum of Cultures, and sm ...

(1937) in

Helsinki Helsinki ( or ; ; sv, Helsingfors, ) is the Capital city, capital, primate city, primate, and List of cities and towns in Finland, most populous city of Finland. Located on the shore of the Gulf of Finland, it is the seat of the region of U ...

Helsinki-Malmin lentoaseman historiallinen terminaali.jpg,

Helsinki-Malmi Airport Helsinki-Malmi Airport ( fi, Helsinki-Malmin lentoasema, sv, Helsingfors-Malm flygplats) is an airfield in Helsinki, Finland, located in the district of Malmi, north-north-east of the city centre. It was opened in 1936. Until the opening of Hel ...

Terminal (1938) Stora Enso main office.JPG, Stora Enso head office (1962) in Helsinki Olympiastadion 2020-04-19.jpg,

Helsinki Olympic Stadium The Helsinki Olympic Stadium ( fi, Helsingin Olympiastadion; sv, Helsingfors Olympiastadion), located in the Töölö district about from the centre of the Finnish capital Helsinki, is the largest stadium in the country, nowadays mainly used ...

(1938) Lasipalatsi Bio Rex.jpg,

Lasipalatsi Lasipalatsi ( sv, Glaspalatset; meaning literally "glass palace") is a functionalist office building designed in the 1930s, located on Mannerheimintie in the Kamppi district of Helsinki, Finland. Lasipalatsi is one of Helsinki's most notable func ...

(1936) in Helsinki Sokos Vaakuna Helsinki.jpg, Hotel Vaakuna (1940) in Helsinki Paimio Sanatorium2.jpg,

(1931) in Paimio Vyborg AaltoLibrary 0033.jpg, Viipuri Library (1927) in Viipuri

Poland

Interbellum In the history of the 20th century, the interwar period lasted from 11 November 1918 to 1 September 1939 (20 years, 9 months, 21 days), the end of the First World War to the beginning of the Second World War. The interwar period was relativel ...

avant-garde Polish architects in the years 1918-1939 made a notable impact in the legacy of European modern architecture and functionalism. A lot of Polish architects were fascinated by Le Corbusier like his Polish students and coworkers

Jerzy Sołtan Jerzy Sołtan (March 6, 1913 - September 16, 2005) was a Polish architect who worked with Le Corbusier and was the Robinson Jr., Professor of Architecture and Urban Design at Harvard Graduate School of Design, where he taught from 1959 until his ...

, Aleksander Kujawski (both co-authors of

Unité d'habitation {{Infobox company , name = Moldtelecom , logo = , type = JSC , foundation = 1 April 1993 , location = Chişinău, Moldova , key_people = Alexandru Ciubuc CEO interim , num_employees = 2,750 employees As of 2019 , industry = Telecommunica ...

in Marseille) and his coworkers Helena Syrkus (Le Corbusier's companion on board of the S.S. Patris, an ocean liner journeying from Marseille to Athens in 1933 during the CIAM IV), Roman Piotrowski and

Maciej Nowicki Maciej Nowicki (born 28 September 1941 in Warsaw) is a Polish politician, manager and scientist. Minister of the Environment of the Republic of Poland in the cabinet of Donald Tusk (from 16 November 2007 to 1 February 2010). Career Nowicki gra ...

. Le Corbusier said about Poles (''When the Cathedrals Were White'', Paris 1937) "Academism has sent down roots everywhere. Nevertheless, the Dutch are relatively free of bias. The Czechs believe in 'modern' and the Polish also." Other Polish architects like Stanisław Brukalski was meeting with

Gerrit Rietveld Gerrit Rietveld (24 June 1888 – 25 June 1964) was a Dutch furniture designer and architect. Early life Rietveld was born in Utrecht on 24 June 1888 as the son of a joiner. He left school at 11 to be apprenticed to his father and enrolled at n ...

and inspired by him and his

neoplasticism Neoplasticism, known in Dutch as ''Nieuwe Beelding'' or the new image, is an avant-garde art theory that arose in 1917 and was employed mainly by Dutch De Stijl artists. The most notable advocates of the theory were the painters Theo van Doe ...

. Only a few years after the construction of

Rietveld Schröder House The Rietveld Schröder House ( nl, Rietveld Schröderhuis) (also known as the Schröder House) in Utrecht (Prins Hendriklaan 50) was built in 1924 by Dutch architect Gerrit Rietveld for Mrs. Truus Schröder-Schräder and her three children. She c ...

, Polish architect Stanisław Brukalski built his own house in Warsaw in 1929 supposedly inspired by Schröder House he had visited. His Polish example of the modern house was awarded bronze medal in Paris world expo in 1937. Just before the Second World War, it was fashionable to build in

a lot of large districts of luxury houses in neighbourhoods full of greenery for wealthy Poles like, for example, district

Saska Kępa Saska Kępa (, ''Saxon Meadow'') is a neighbourhood in Warsaw, Poland, part of the Praga Południe (South Praga) district, with a population of over 40.000 inhabitants. It is also the home to one of Warsaw's largest urban parks, the Skaryszew Park ...

Warsaw Warsaw ( pl, Warszawa, ), officially the Capital City of Warsaw,, abbreviation: ''m.st. Warszawa'' is the capital and largest city of Poland. The metropolis stands on the River Vistula in east-central Poland, and its population is officia ...

or district Kamienna Góra in seaport

Gdynia Gdynia ( ; ; german: Gdingen (currently), (1939–1945); csb, Gdiniô, , , ) is a city in northern Poland and a seaport on the Baltic Sea coast. With a population of 243,918, it is the List of cities in Poland, 12th-largest city in Poland and ...

. The most characteristic features in Polish functionalist architecture 1918-1939 were portholes, roof terraces and marble interiors. Probably the most outstanding work of Polish functionalist architecture is the entire city of Gdynia, modern Polish seaport established 1926. File:11 kat9 archpol35 70 a.jpg,

Bohdan Lachert Bohdan Lachert (13 June 1900 – 8 January 1987) was a Polish architect, member of Praesens group. He designed a lot of buildings with his friend Józef Szanajca, like modern villas ast Saska Kępa (inspired by Le Corbusier's ideas) or Polish ...

villa with roof garden (1929) in

. The house was considered as the best implementation of so-called villa architecture at the time in Warsaw (opinion by professor Lech Niemojewski in 1929). It's the house inspired by the form of ocean liner. File:Willa, ul. Niegolewskiego 8, Warszawa, dz. Żoliborz, Mart2.JPG, Stanisław Brukalski villa with roof terrace (1929) in Warsaw File:Orzeł ministerstwo infrastruktury.jpg,

Polish eagle The coat of arms of Poland is a white, crowned eagle with a golden beak and talons, on a red background. In Poland, the coat of arms as a whole is referred to as ''godło'' both in official documents and colloquial speech, despite the fact that ...

basalt Basalt (; ) is an aphanite, aphanitic (fine-grained) extrusive igneous rock formed from the rapid cooling of low-viscosity lava rich in magnesium and iron (mafic lava) exposed at or very near the planetary surface, surface of a terrestrial ...

relief on the building of the Ministry of Infrastructure (by Rudolf Świerczyński, 1931) in Warsaw File:Wiata peronowa w Michalinie 0001.JPG, Small station Michalin near Warsaw (1936) by Kazimierz Centnerszwer. Typical modern railway station built in series near Warsaw. File:Gdynia 234669023555.jpg, Roman Piotrowski ZUS Insurance building (1936) in

File:Gdynia- Dom Żeglarza Polskiego (4).JPG, Bohdan Damięcki

Gdynia Maritime University The Gdynia Maritime University (Polish: Uniwersytet Morski w Gdyni) is one of two colleges in Poland which specialises in educating highly qualified officers for the maritime industry, especially for the merchant navy. History The university ...

(1937) File:Gdynia, Inżynierska 111 (3) cz.jpg, Narcyz Obrycki villa (1937) in Gdynia File:Willa ul Sieroszewskiego 1a Gdynia KS.JPG,

Tadeusz Kossak Tadeusz Kossak (1 January 1857 in Paris – 3 July 1935 in Górki Wielkie), was born into a noted Polish family of artists and writers. He was an officer in the Polish Army, a freedom fighter, and owner of a country estate in Górki Wielkie tha ...

villa (1938) in seaport Gdynia. Three large porthole windows in the back. File:Szklany Dom ul. Mickiewicza w Warszawie 2017.jpg,

Juliusz Żórawski Juliusz Żórawski (2 October 1898 in Kraków – 24 November 1967 in Kraków) was a Polish architect, theoretist of architecture, interior designer, professor of Politechnika Krakowska (since 1945). He was a designer of representative flat buildi ...

Housing Unit "Glass House" (1938-1941) in Warsaw with luxury apartments 177m² each and large roof terrace

Russia

In Russia and the former

Soviet Union The Soviet Union,. officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR),. was a transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. A flagship communist state, it was nominally a federal union of fifteen national ...

, functionalism was known as

Constructivist architecture Constructivist architecture was a constructivist style of modern architecture that flourished in the Soviet Union in the 1920s and early 1930s. Abstract and austere, the movement aimed to reflect modern industrial society and urban space, while ...

, and was the dominant style for major building projects between 1918 and 1932.

Examples

Notable representations of functionalist architecture include: Slovakia Bratislava 154

Denmark ) , song = ( en, "King Christian stood by the lofty mast") , song_type = National and royal anthem , image_map = EU-Denmark.svg , map_caption = , subdivision_type = Sovereign state , subdivision_name = Danish Realm, Kingdom of Denmark ...

ADGB Trade Union School The ADGB Trade Union School (''Bundesschule des Allgemeinen Deutschen Gewerkschaftsbundes'' (ADGB)), is a training centre complex in Bernau bei Berlin, Germany. It was built for the former General German Trade Union Federation, from 1928 to 1930 ...

* Administratívna budova spojov,

Bratislava Bratislava (, also ; ; german: Preßburg/Pressburg ; hu, Pozsony) is the Capital city, capital and largest city of Slovakia. Officially, the population of the city is about 475,000; however, it is estimated to be more than 660,000 — approxim ...

Slovakia Slovakia (; sk, Slovensko ), officially the Slovak Republic ( sk, Slovenská republika, links=no ), is a landlocked country in Central Europe. It is bordered by Poland to the north, Ukraine to the east, Hungary to the south, Austria to the s ...

* Obchodný a obytný dom Luxor, Bratislava, Slovakia *

Czech Republic The Czech Republic, or simply Czechia, is a landlocked country in Central Europe. Historically known as Bohemia, it is bordered by Austria to the south, Germany to the west, Poland to the northeast, and Slovakia to the southeast. The ...

* Kavárna Era, Brno, Czech Republic * Kolonie Nový dům, Brno, Czech Republic * Veletržní palác,

, Czech Republic *

, Prague, Czech Republic *

city, Czech Republic *

, Czech Republic * Booth House, Bridge Street, Sydney, Australia * Bullfighting Arena,

Póvoa de Varzim Póvoa de Varzim (, ) is a Portuguese city in Northern Portugal and sub-region of Greater Porto, from its city centre. It sits in a sandy coastal plain, a cuspate foreland, halfway between the Minho and Douro rivers. In 2001, there were 63,470 ...

Portugal Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic ( pt, República Portuguesa, links=yes ), is a country whose mainland is located on the Iberian Peninsula of Southwestern Europe, and whose territory also includes the Atlantic archipelagos of ...

* Glass Palace,

* Hotel Hollywood, Sydney, Australia * Knarraros lighthouse, Stokkseyri,

Iceland Iceland ( is, Ísland; ) is a Nordic island country in the North Atlantic Ocean and in the Arctic Ocean. Iceland is the most sparsely populated country in Europe. Iceland's capital and largest city is Reykjavík, which (along with its s ...

* Pärnu Rannahotell,

Estonia Estonia, formally the Republic of Estonia, is a country by the Baltic Sea in Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland across from Finland, to the west by the sea across from Sweden, to the south by Latvia, a ...

* Pärnu Rannakohvik, Estonia *

Södra Ängby Södra Ängby is a residential area blending functionalism with garden city ideals, located in western Stockholm, Sweden, forming part of the Bromma borough. Encompassing more than 500 buildings, it remains the largest coherent functionalist ...

Stockholm Stockholm () is the Capital city, capital and List of urban areas in Sweden by population, largest city of Sweden as well as the List of urban areas in the Nordic countries, largest urban area in Scandinavia. Approximately 980,000 people liv ...

Sweden Sweden, formally the Kingdom of Sweden,The United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names states that the country's formal name is the Kingdom of SwedenUNGEGN World Geographical Names, Sweden./ref> is a Nordic country located on ...

* Stanislas Brukalski's villa,

, Poland *

Modernist Center of Gdynia Śródmieście ( meaning "city centre", "downtown") is the central borough ''(dzielnica)'' of the city of Gdynia. It borders the following districts: Oksywie, Obłuże, Pogórze (all three from the north), Chylonia, Leszczynki, Grabówek (all thre ...

, Poland *

Södra Ängby, Sweden

The

residential area A residential area is a land used in which housing predominates, as opposed to industrial and commercial areas. Housing may vary significantly between, and through, residential areas. These include single-family housing, multi-family residen ...

in western

, blended a functionalist or international style with garden city ideals. Encompassing more than 500 buildings, it remains the largest coherent functionalistic

villa A villa is a type of house that was originally an ancient Roman upper class country house. Since its origins in the Roman villa, the idea and function of a villa have evolved considerably. After the fall of the Roman Republic, villas became s ...

area in Sweden and possibly the world, still well-preserved more than a half-century after its construction 1933–40 and protected as a national cultural heritage.

Zlín, Czech Republic

is a city in the Czech Republic which was in the 1930s completely reconstructed on principles of functionalism. In that time the city was a headquarters of

Bata Shoes The Bata Corporation (known as Bata, and in the Czech Republic and Slovakia, known as Baťa) is a multinational footwear, apparel and fashion accessories manufacturer and retailer of Moravian (Czech) origin, headquartered in Lausanne, Switzer ...

company and Tomáš Baťa initiated a complex reconstruction of the city which was inspired by functionalism and the

Garden city movement The garden city movement was a 20th century urban planning movement promoting satellite communities surrounding the central city and separated with greenbelts. These Garden Cities would contain proportionate areas of residences, industry, and ...

. Zlín's distinctive architecture was guided by principles that were strictly observed during its whole inter-war development. Its central theme was the derivation of all architectural elements from the factory buildings. The central position of the industrial production in the life of all Zlín inhabitants was to be highlighted. Hence the same building materials (red bricks, glass, reinforced concrete) were used for the construction of all public (and most private) edifices. The common structural element of Zlín architecture is a square bay of 20x20 feet (6.15x6.15 m). Although modified by several variations, this high modernist style leads to a high degree of uniformity of all buildings. It highlights the central and unique idea of an industrial garden city at the same time. Architectural and urban functionalism was to serve the demands of a modern city. The simplicity of its buildings which also translated into its functional adaptability was to prescribe (and also react to) the needs of everyday life. The urban plan of Zlín was the creation of

, a student at Le Corbusier's atelier in Paris. Architectural highlights of the city are e.g. the Villa of Tomáš Baťa, Baťa's Hospital,

, The Grand Cinema or

Baťa's Skyscraper Baťa's Skyscraper, also known as Building No. 21, is a skyscraper in Zlín, Czech Republic. It is 77.5 metres high and has sixteen floors. It was the administration building of the Bata Shoes factory, a company that was based in the city. Now it ...

Khrushchyovka

Khrushchyovka ''Khrushchyovka'' ( rus, Хрущёвка, Khrushchyovka, p=xrʊˈɕːɵfkə) or (a derogatory nickname) ''Khrushchoba'' ( rus, Хрущоба, Hrushchoba, t=Khru-slum) is an unofficial name for a type of low-cost, concrete- paneled or brick ...

( rus, хрущёвка, p=xrʊˈɕːɵfkə) is an unofficial name of type of low-cost, concrete- paneled or brick three- to five-storied

apartment building An apartment (American English), or flat (British English, Indian English, South African English), is a self-contained housing unit (a type of residential real estate) that occupies part of a building, generally on a single story. There are ...

which was developed in the

during the early 1960s, during the time its namesake

Nikita Khrushchev Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev (– 11 September 1971) was the First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964 and chairman of the country's Council of Ministers from 1958 to 1964. During his rule, Khrushchev s ...

directed the Soviet government. The apartment buildings also went by the name of "Khruschoba" (, Khrushchev-slum).

Functionalism in landscape architecture

The development of functionalism in

landscape architecture Landscape architecture is the design of outdoor areas, landmarks, and structures to achieve environmental, social-behavioural, or aesthetic outcomes. It involves the systematic design and general engineering of various structures for constructio ...

paralleled its development in building architecture. At the residential scale, designers like

Christopher Tunnard Arthur Coney Tunnard (1910 in Victoria, British Columbia – 1979), later known as Christopher Tunnard, was a Canadian-born landscape architect, garden designer, city-planner, and author of ''Gardens in the Modern Landscape'' (1938). Biography ...

, James Rose, and

Garrett Eckbo Garrett Eckbo (November 28, 1910 – May 14, 2000) was an American landscape architect notable for his seminal 1950 book '' Landscape for Living''. Youth He was born in Cooperstown, New York to Axel Eckbo, a businessman, and Theodora Munn Eck ...

advocated a design philosophy based on the creation of spaces for outdoor living and the integration of house and garden.Rogers, Elizabeth Barlow. ''Landscape Design: A Cultural and Architectural History''. New York: Abrams, 2001. pp. 23, 454–455 At a larger scale, the German landscape architect and planner

Leberecht Migge Leberecht Migge (March 30, 1881 in Danzig (now Gdańsk, Poland) – May 30, 1935 in Worpswede) was a German landscape architect, regional planner and polemical writer, best known for the incorporation of social gardening principles in the ''Siedlu ...

advocated the use of edible gardens in social housing projects as a way to counteract hunger and increase self-sufficiency of families. At a still larger scale, the

Congrès International d'Architecture Moderne A congress is a formal meeting of the representatives of different countries, constituent states, organizations, trade unions, political parties, or other groups. The term originated in Late Middle English to denote an encounter (meeting of ...

advocated for urban design strategies based on human proportions and in support of four functions of human settlement: housing, work, play, and transport.

Literature

* ''Vers une Architecture and Villa Savoye: A Comparison of Treatise and Building'' - A multipart essay explaining the basics of Le Corbusier's theory and contrasting them with his built work. * Behne, Adolf (1923). The Modern Functional Building. Michael Robinson, trans. Santa Monica: Getty Research Institute, 1996. * Forty, Adrian (2000). "Function". Words and Buildings, A Vocabulary of Modern Architecture. Thames & Hudson, p. 174-195. * Michl, Jan (1995)
Form follows WHAT? The modernist notion of function as a ''carte blanche''
1995. Read more articles on www.beautytips.pk

References

External links

{{DEFAULTSORT:Functionalism (Architecture) 20th-century architectural styles Architectural theory Functionalism Functionalism Functionalism