HOME

TheInfoList



OR:

In mathematics, the formal derivative is an operation on elements of a
polynomial ring In mathematics, especially in the field of algebra, a polynomial ring or polynomial algebra is a ring (which is also a commutative algebra) formed from the set of polynomials in one or more indeterminates (traditionally also called variable ...
or a ring of formal power series that mimics the form of the derivative from
calculus Calculus, originally called infinitesimal calculus or "the calculus of infinitesimals", is the mathematics, mathematical study of continuous change, in the same way that geometry is the study of shape, and algebra is the study of generalizati ...
. Though they appear similar, the algebraic advantage of a formal derivative is that it does not rely on the notion of a
limit Limit or Limits may refer to: Arts and media * ''Limit'' (manga), a manga by Keiko Suenobu * ''Limit'' (film), a South Korean film * Limit (music), a way to characterize harmony * "Limit" (song), a 2016 single by Luna Sea * "Limits", a 2019 ...
, which is in general impossible to define for a ring. Many of the properties of the derivative are true of the formal derivative, but some, especially those that make numerical statements, are not. Formal differentiation is used in algebra to test for multiple roots of a polynomial.


Definition

The definition of formal derivative is as follows: fix a ring ''R'' (not necessarily commutative) and let ''A'' = ''R'' 'x''be the ring of polynomials over ''R''. Then the formal derivative is an operation on elements of ''A'', where if :f(x)\,=\,a_n x^n + \cdots + a_1 x + a_0, then its formal derivative is :f'(x)\,=\,Df(x) = n a_n x^ + \cdots + 2 a_2 x + a_1, just as for polynomials over the real or complex numbers. Here m a_i does not mean multiplication in the ring, but rather \sum_^m a_i, where k is never used inside the sum. There is a problem with this definition for noncommutative rings. The formula itself is correct, but there is no standard form of a polynomial. Therefore using this definition it is difficult to prove that (f(x)\cdot b)'=f'(x)\cdot b.


Axiomatic definition well suited for noncommutative rings

As opposed to the above formula one may define the formal derivative axiomatically as the map (\ast)^\prime\colon R \to R /math> satisfying the following properties. 1) r'=0 for all r\in R\subset R 2) The normalization axiom, x' = 1. 3) The map commutes with the addition operation in the polynomial ring, (a+b)' = a'+b'. 4) The map satisfies Leibniz's law with respect to the polynomial ring's multiplication operation, (a\cdot b)'=a'\cdot b+a\cdot b'. One may prove that this axiomatic definition yields a well defined map respecting all of the usual ring axioms. The formula above (i.e. the definition of the formal derivative when the coefficient ring is commutative) is a direct consequence of the aforementioned axioms: (\sum_i a_ix^i)'=\sum_i (a_ix^i)'=\sum_i ((a_i)'x^i+a_i(x^i)')=\sum_i(0x^i+a_i(\sum_^ix^(x')x^))=\sum_i\sum_^i a_ix^ = \sum_i i a_ix^.


Properties

It can be verified that: * Formal differentiation is linear: for any two polynomials ''f''(''x''),''g''(''x'') in ''R'' 'x''and elements ''r'',''s'' of ''R'' we have ::(r \cdot f + s \cdot g)'(x) = r \cdot f'(x) + s \cdot g'(x). :When ''R'' is not commutative there is another, different, linearity property in which ''r'' and ''s'' appear on the right rather than on the left. When ''R'' does not contain an identity element, neither of these reduces to the case of simply a sum of polynomials or the sum of a polynomial with a multiple of another polynomial, which must also be included as a "linearity" property. * The formal derivative satisfies the
Leibniz rule Leibniz's rule (named after Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz) may refer to one of the following: * Product rule in differential calculus * General Leibniz rule, a generalization of the product rule * Leibniz integral rule * The alternating series test, al ...
: ::(f \cdot g)'(x) = f'(x) \cdot g(x) + f(x) \cdot g'(x). :Note the order of the factors; when ''R'' is not commutative this is important. These two properties make ''D'' a derivation on ''A'' (see module of relative differential forms for a discussion of a generalization).


Application to finding repeated factors

As in calculus, the derivative detects multiple roots. If ''R'' is a field then ''R'' 'x''is a Euclidean domain, and in this situation we can define multiplicity of roots; for every polynomial ''f''(''x'') in ''R'' 'x''and every element ''r'' of ''R'', there exists a nonnegative integer ''mr'' and a polynomial ''g''(''x'') such that :f(x) = (x - r)^ g(x) where ''g''(''r'')≠''0''. ''mr'' is the multiplicity of ''r'' as a root of ''f''. It follows from the Leibniz rule that in this situation, ''mr'' is also the number of differentiations that must be performed on ''f''(''x'') before ''r'' is no longer a root of the resulting polynomial. The utility of this observation is that although in general not every polynomial of degree ''n'' in ''R'' 'x''has ''n'' roots counting multiplicity (this is the maximum, by the above theorem), we may pass to
field extension In mathematics, particularly in algebra, a field extension is a pair of fields E\subseteq F, such that the operations of ''E'' are those of ''F'' restricted to ''E''. In this case, ''F'' is an extension field of ''E'' and ''E'' is a subfield of ...
s in which this is true (namely,
algebraic closure In mathematics, particularly abstract algebra, an algebraic closure of a field ''K'' is an algebraic extension of ''K'' that is algebraically closed. It is one of many closures in mathematics. Using Zorn's lemmaMcCarthy (1991) p.21Kaplansky ...
s). Once we do, we may uncover a multiple root that was not a root at all simply over ''R''. For example, if ''R'' is the field with three elements, the polynomial :f(x)\,=\,x^6 + 1 has no roots in ''R''; however, its formal derivative (f'(x)\,=\,6 x^5) is zero (why ?) since 3 = 0 in ''R'' and in any extension of ''R'', so when we pass to the algebraic closure it has a multiple root that could not have been detected by factorization in ''R'' itself. Thus, formal differentiation allows an effective notion of multiplicity. This is important in
Galois theory In mathematics, Galois theory, originally introduced by Évariste Galois, provides a connection between field theory and group theory. This connection, the fundamental theorem of Galois theory, allows reducing certain problems in field theory t ...
, where the distinction is made between separable field extensions (defined by polynomials with no multiple roots) and inseparable ones.


Correspondence to analytic derivative

When the ring ''R'' of scalars is commutative, there is an alternative and equivalent definition of the formal derivative, which resembles the one seen in differential calculus. The element Y–X of the ring ''R'' ,Ydivides Y''n'' – X''n'' for any nonnegative integer ''n'', and therefore divides ''f''(Y) – ''f''(X) for any polynomial ''f'' in one indeterminate. If the quotient in ''R'' ,Yis denoted by ''g'', then :g(X,Y) = \frac. It is then not hard to verify that ''g''(X,X) (in ''R'' coincides with the formal derivative of ''f'' as it was defined above. This formulation of the derivative works equally well for a formal power series, as long as the ring of coefficients is commutative. Actually, if the division in this definition is carried out in the class of functions of Y continuous at X, it will recapture the classical definition of the derivative. If it is carried out in the class of functions continuous in both X and Y, we get uniform differentiability, and our function f will be continuously differentiable. Likewise, by choosing different classes of functions (say, the Lipschitz class), we get different flavors of differentiability. In this way, differentiation becomes a part of algebra of functions.


See also

*
Derivative In mathematics, the derivative of a function of a real variable measures the sensitivity to change of the function value (output value) with respect to a change in its argument (input value). Derivatives are a fundamental tool of calculus. ...
* Euclidean domain * Module of relative differential forms *
Galois theory In mathematics, Galois theory, originally introduced by Évariste Galois, provides a connection between field theory and group theory. This connection, the fundamental theorem of Galois theory, allows reducing certain problems in field theory t ...
* Formal power series * Pincherle derivative


References

* {{Lang Algebra, edition=3r
Michael Livshits, You could simplify calculus, arXiv:0905.3611v1
Abstract algebra