A foreland basin is a
structural basin
A structural basin is a large-scale structural formation of rock strata formed by tectonic warping of previously flat-lying strata. They are geological depressions, the inverse of domes. Elongated structural basins are also known as synclines. ...
that develops adjacent and parallel to a
mountain belt
A mountain range or hill range is a series of mountains or hills arranged in a line and connected by high ground. A mountain system or mountain belt is a group of mountain ranges with similarity in form, structure, and alignment that have arise ...
. Foreland basins form because the immense mass created by
crustal thickening associated with the evolution of a mountain belt causes the
lithosphere
A lithosphere () is the rigid, outermost rocky shell of a terrestrial planet or natural satellite. On Earth, it is composed of the crust (geology), crust and the portion of the upper mantle (geology), mantle that behaves elastically on time sca ...
to bend, by a process known as
lithospheric flexure
Lithospheric flexure (also called regional isostasy) is the process by which the lithosphere (rigid, thin outer layer of the Earth) bends under the action of forces such as the weight of a growing orogeny or changes in ice thickness related to glac ...
. The width and depth of the foreland basin is determined by the
flexural rigidity
Flexural rigidity is defined as the force couple required to bend a fixed non- rigid structure by one unit of curvature, or as the resistance offered by a structure while undergoing bending.
Flexural rigidity of a beam
Although the moment M(x) an ...
of the underlying lithosphere, and the characteristics of the mountain belt. The foreland basin receives
sediment
Sediment is a naturally occurring material that is broken down by processes of weathering and erosion, and is subsequently transported by the action of wind, water, or ice or by the force of gravity acting on the particles. For example, sand an ...
that is eroded off the adjacent mountain belt, filling with thick sedimentary successions that thin away from the mountain belt. Foreland basins represent an endmember basin type, the other being
rift basin
In geology, a rift is a linear zone where the lithosphere is being pulled apart and is an example of extensional tectonics.
Typical rift features are a central linear downfaulted depression, called a graben, or more commonly a half-graben wi ...
s. Space for sediments (accommodation space) is provided by loading and downflexure to form foreland basins, in contrast to rift basins, where accommodation space is generated by lithospheric extension.
Types of foreland basin
Foreland basins can be divided into two categories:
* Peripheral (Pro) foreland basins, which occur on the plate that is subducted or underthrust during plate collision (i.e. the outer arc of the orogen)
** Examples include the
North Alpine Foreland Basin of Europe, or the
Ganges Basin
The Ganges Basin is a part of the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna (GBM) basin draining 1,999,000 square kilometres in Tibet, Nepal, India and Bangladesh. To the north, the Himalaya or lower parallel ranges beyond form the Ganges-Brahmaputra divide. ...
of Asia
* Retroarc (Retro) foreland basins, which occur on the plate that overrides during plate convergence or collision (i.e. situated behind the magmatic arc that is linked with the subduction of oceanic lithosphere)
** Examples include the
Andean basins, or Late Mesozoic to Cenozoic Rocky Mountain Basins of North America
Foreland basin system
DeCelles & Giles (1996) provide a thorough definition of the foreland basin system. Foreland basin systems comprise three characteristic properties:
# An elongate region of potential sediment accommodation that forms on continental crust between a contractional orogenic belt and the adjacent craton, mainly in response to geodynamic processes related to subduction and the resulting peripheral or retroarc fold-thrust belt;
# It consists of four discrete depozones, referred to as the ''wedge-top'', foredeep, ''
forebulge
In geology, a forebulge is a flexural bulge in front as a result of a load on the lithosphere, often caused by tectonic interactions and glaciations. An example of forebulge can be seen in the Himalayan foreland basin, a result of the Indian-Euras ...
'' and ''back-bulge'' depozones (depositional zones) – which of these depozones a sediment particle occupies depends on its location at the time of deposition, rather than its ultimate geometric relationship with the thrust belt;
# The longitudinal dimension of the foreland basin system is roughly equal to the length of the fold-thrust belt, and does not include sediment that spills into remnant ocean basins or continental rifts (impactogens).
Foreland basin systems: depozones
The ''wedge-top'' sits on top of the moving thrust sheets and contains all the sediments charging from the active tectonic thrust wedge. This is where
piggyback basin A piggyback basin (also piggy-back, thrust-sheet-top, detached, or satellite basin) is a minor sedimentary basin developed on top of a moving thrust sheet as part of a foreland basin system. Piggyback basins form in the wedge-top depositional zone o ...
s form.
The ''foredeep'' is the thickest sedimentary zone and thickens toward the orogen. Sediments are deposited via distal fluvial, lacustrine, deltaic, and marine depositional systems.
The ''forebulge'' and ''backbulge'' are the thinnest and most distal zones and are not always present. When present, they are defined by regional unconformities as well as aeolian and shallow-marine deposits.
Sedimentation is most rapid near the moving thrust sheet.
Sediment transport
Sediment transport is the movement of solid particles (sediment), typically due to a combination of gravity acting on the sediment, and/or the movement of the fluid in which the sediment is entrained. Sediment transport occurs in natural system ...
within the foredeep is generally parallel to the strike of the thrust fault and basin axis.
Plate motion and seismicity
The motion of the adjacent plates of the foreland basin can be determined by studying the active deformation zone with which it is connected. Today GPS measurements provide the rate at which one plate is moving relative to another. It is also important to consider that present day kinematics are unlikely to be the same as when deformation began. Thus, it is crucial to consider non-GPS models to determine the long-term evolution of continental collisions and in how it helped develop the adjacent foreland basins.
Comparing both modern GPS (Sella et al. 2002) and non-GPS models allows deformation rates to be calculated. Comparing these numbers to the geologic regime helps constrain the number of probable models as well as which model is more geologically accurate within a specific region.
Seismicity determines where active zones of seismic activity occur as well as measure the total fault displacements and the timing of the onset of deformation.
Formation of basins
Foreland basins form because as the mountain belt grows, it exerts a significant mass on the Earth's crust, which causes it to bend, or flex, downwards. This occurs so that the weight of the mountain belt can be compensated by
isostasy
Isostasy (Greek ''ísos'' "equal", ''stásis'' "standstill") or isostatic equilibrium is the state of gravitational equilibrium between Earth's crust (or lithosphere) and mantle such that the crust "floats" at an elevation that depends on its ...
at the upflex of the forebulge.
The
plate tectonic
Plate tectonics (from the la, label=Late Latin, tectonicus, from the grc, τεκτονικός, lit=pertaining to building) is the generally accepted scientific theory that considers the Earth's lithosphere to comprise a number of large te ...
evolution of a peripheral foreland basin involves three general stages. First, the passive margin stage with orogenic loading of previously stretched continental margin during the early stages of convergence. Second, the "early convergence stage defined by deep water conditions", and lastly a "later convergent stage during which a
subaerial In natural science, subaerial (literally "under the air"), has been used since 1833,[Subaerial](_blank)
in the Merriam ...
wedge is flanked with terrestrial or shallow marine foreland basins".
The temperature underneath the orogen is much higher and weakens the lithosphere. Thus, the thrust belt is mobile and the foreland basin system becomes deformed over time. Syntectonic unconformities demonstrate simultaneous subsidence and tectonic activity.
Foreland basins are filled with sediments which erode from the adjacent mountain belt. In the early stages, the foreland basin is said to be ''underfilled''. During this stage, deep water and commonly marine sediments, known as
flysch
Flysch () is a sequence of sedimentary rock layers that progress from deep-water and turbidity flow deposits to shallow-water shales and sandstones. It is deposited when a deep basin forms rapidly on the continental side of a mountain building ep ...
, are deposited. Eventually, the basin becomes completely filled. At this point, the basin enters the ''overfilled'' stage and deposition of terrestrial
clastic
Clastic rocks are composed of fragments, or clasts, of pre-existing minerals and rock. A clast is a fragment of geological detritus,Essentials of Geology, 3rd Ed, Stephen Marshak, p. G-3 chunks, and smaller grains of rock broken off other rocks ...
sediments occurs. These are known as
molasse
__NOTOC__
The term "molasse" () refers to sandstones, shales and conglomerates that form as terrestrial or shallow marine deposits in front of rising mountain chains. The molasse deposits accumulate in a foreland basin, especially on top of flys ...
. Sediment fill within the foredeep acts as an additional load on the continental lithosphere.
Lithospheric behavior
Although the degree to which the lithosphere relaxes over time is still controversial, most workers accept an elastic or visco-elastic
rheology
Rheology (; ) is the study of the flow of matter, primarily in a fluid ( liquid or gas) state, but also as "soft solids" or solids under conditions in which they respond with plastic flow rather than deforming elastically in response to an appl ...
to describe the lithospheric deformation of the foreland basin. Allen & Allen (2005) describe a moving load system, one in which the deflection moves as a wave through the foreland plate before the load system. The deflection shape is commonly described as an asymmetrical low close to the load along the foreland and a broader uplifted deflection along the forebulge. The transport rate or flux of erosion, as well as sedimentation, is a function of topographic relief.
For the loading model, the lithosphere is initially stiff, with the basin broad and shallow. Relaxation of the lithosphere allows subsidence near the thrust, narrowing of basin, forebulge toward thrust. During times of thrusting, the lithosphere is stiff and the forebulge broadens. The timing of the thrust deformation is opposite that of the relaxing of the lithosphere. The bending of the lithosphere under the orogenic load controls the drainage pattern of the foreland basin. The flexural tilting of the basin and the sediment supply from the orogen.
Lithospheric strength envelopes
Strength envelopes indicate that the rheological structure of the lithosphere underneath the foreland and the orogen are very different. The foreland basin typically shows a thermal and rheological structure similar to a rifted continental margin with three brittle layers above three ductile layers. The temperature underneath the orogen is much higher and thus greatly weakens the lithosphere. According to Zhou et al. (2003), "under compressional stress the lithosphere beneath the mountain range becomes ductile almost entirely, except a thin (about 6 km in the center) brittle layer near the surface and perhaps a thin brittle layer in the uppermost mantle." This lithospheric weakening underneath the orogenic belt may in part cause the regional lithospheric flexure behavior.
Thermal history
Foreland basins are considered to be hypothermal basins (cooler than normal), with low
geothermal gradient
Geothermal gradient is the rate of temperature change with respect to increasing depth in Earth's interior. As a general rule, the crust temperature rises with depth due to the heat flow from the much hotter mantle; away from tectonic plate b ...
and
heat flow
Heat transfer is a discipline of thermal engineering that concerns the generation, use, conversion, and exchange of thermal energy (heat) between physical systems. Heat transfer is classified into various mechanisms, such as thermal conduction, ...
. Heat flow values average between 1 and 2 HFU (40–90 mWm
−2. Rapid subsidence may be responsible for these low values.
Over time sedimentary layers become buried and lose porosity. This can be due to sediment
compaction or the physical or chemical changes, such as pressure or
cementation. Thermal maturation of sediments is a factor of temperature and time and occurs at shallower depths due to past heat redistribution of migrating brines.
Vitrinite reflectance, which typically demonstrates an exponential evolution of organic matter as a function of time, is the best organic indicator for thermal maturation. Studies have shown that present day thermal measurements of heat flow and geothermal gradients closely correspond to a regime's tectonic origin and development as well as the lithospheric mechanics.
Fluid migration
Migrating fluids originate from the sediments of the foreland basin and migrate in response to deformation. As a result, brine can migrate over great distances. Evidence of long-range migration includes: 1) Correlation of petroleum to distant
source rock
In petroleum geology, source rock is rock which has generated hydrocarbons or which could generate hydrocarbons. Source rocks are one of the necessary elements of a working petroleum system. They are organic-rich sediments that may have been depos ...
s 2) Ore bodies deposited from metal-bearing brines, 3) Anomalous thermal histories for shallow sediments, 4) Regional potassium metasomatism, 5) Epigenetic dolomite cements in ore bodies and deep aquifers.
Fluid source
Fluids carrying heat, minerals, and petroleum, have a vast impact on the tectonic regime within the foreland basin. Before deformation, sediment layers are porous and full of fluids, such as water and hydrated minerals. Once these sediments are buried and compacted, the pores become smaller and some of the fluids, about , leave the pores. This fluid has to go somewhere. Within the foreland basin, these fluids potentially can heat and mineralize materials, as well as mix with the local hydrostatic head.
Major driving force for fluid migration
Orogen topography is the major driving force of fluid migration. The heat from the lower crust moves via conduction and groundwater
advection
In the field of physics, engineering, and earth sciences, advection is the transport of a substance or quantity by bulk motion of a fluid. The properties of that substance are carried with it. Generally the majority of the advected substance is al ...
. Local hydrothermal areas occur when deep fluid flow moves very quickly. This can also explain very high temperatures at shallow depths.
Other minor constraints include tectonic compression, thrusting, and sediment compaction. These are considered minor because they are limited by the slow rates of tectonic deformation,
lithology
The lithology of a rock unit is a description of its physical characteristics visible at outcrop, in hand or core samples, or with low magnification microscopy. Physical characteristics include colour, texture, grain size, and composition. Lit ...
and depositional rates, on the order of 0–10 cm yr
−1, but more likely closer to 1 or less than 1 cm yr
−1. Overpressured zones might allow for faster migration, when 1 kilometer or more of shaly sediments accumulate per 1 million years.
Bethke & Marshak (1990) state that "groundwater that recharges at high elevation migrates through the subsurface in response to its high potential energy toward areas where the water table is lower."
Hydrocarbon migration
Bethke & Marshak (1990) explain that petroleum migrates not only in response to the hydrodynamic forces that drive groundwater flow, but to the buoyancy and capillary effects of the petroleum moving through microscopic pores. Migration patterns flow away from the orogenic belt and into the cratonic interior. Frequently, natural gas is found closer to the orogen and oil is found further away.
Modern (Cenozoic) foreland basin systems
Asia
*
Ganges Basin
The Ganges Basin is a part of the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna (GBM) basin draining 1,999,000 square kilometres in Tibet, Nepal, India and Bangladesh. To the north, the Himalaya or lower parallel ranges beyond form the Ganges-Brahmaputra divide. ...
** Pro-foreland to the south of the
Himalaya
The Himalayas, or Himalaya (; ; ), is a mountain range in Asia, separating the plains of the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau. The range has some of the planet's highest peaks, including the very highest, Mount Everest. Over 100 ...
, in northern India and
Pakistan
Pakistan ( ur, ), officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan ( ur, , label=none), is a country in South Asia. It is the world's List of countries and dependencies by population, fifth-most populous country, with a population of almost 24 ...
** Began to form 65 million years ago during the collision of India and Eurasia
** Filled with a sedimentary succession more than 12 km thick
* Northern
Tarim Basin
The Tarim Basin is an endorheic basin in Northwest China occupying an area of about and one of the largest basins in Northwest China.Chen, Yaning, et al. "Regional climate change and its effects on river runoff in the Tarim Basin, China." Hydr ...
** Pro-foreland to the south of the
Tian Shan
The Tian Shan,, , otk, 𐰴𐰣 𐱅𐰭𐰼𐰃, , tr, Tanrı Dağı, mn, Тэнгэр уул, , ug, تەڭرىتاغ, , , kk, Тәңіртауы / Алатау, , , ky, Теңир-Тоо / Ала-Тоо, , , uz, Tyan-Shan / Tangritog‘ ...
** Formed initially during the Late
Paleozoic
The Paleozoic (or Palaeozoic) Era is the earliest of three geologic eras of the Phanerozoic Eon.
The name ''Paleozoic'' ( ;) was coined by the British geologist Adam Sedgwick in 1838
by combining the Greek words ''palaiós'' (, "old") and ' ...
, during the
Carboniferous
The Carboniferous ( ) is a geologic period and system of the Paleozoic that spans 60 million years from the end of the Devonian Period million years ago ( Mya), to the beginning of the Permian Period, million years ago. The name ''Carbonifero ...
and
Devonian
The Devonian ( ) is a geologic period and system of the Paleozoic era, spanning 60.3 million years from the end of the Silurian, million years ago (Mya), to the beginning of the Carboniferous, Mya. It is named after Devon, England, whe ...
** Rejuvenated during the
Cenozoic
The Cenozoic ( ; ) is Earth's current geological era, representing the last 66million years of Earth's history. It is characterised by the dominance of mammals, birds and flowering plants, a cooling and drying climate, and the current configura ...
as a result of far field stress associated with the India-Eurasia collision and the renewed uplift of the Tian Shan
** Thickest sedimentary section is beneath
Kashgar
Kashgar ( ug, قەشقەر, Qeshqer) or Kashi ( zh, c=喀什) is an oasis city in the Tarim Basin region of Southern Xinjiang. It is one of the westernmost cities of China, near the border with Afghanistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Pakistan ...
, where
Cenozoic
The Cenozoic ( ; ) is Earth's current geological era, representing the last 66million years of Earth's history. It is characterised by the dominance of mammals, birds and flowering plants, a cooling and drying climate, and the current configura ...
sediment is more than 10,000 metres thick
* Southern
Junggar Basin
The Junggar Basin () is one of the largest sedimentary basins in Northwest China. It is located in Xinjiang, and enclosed by the Tarbagatai Mountains of Kazakhstan in the northwest, the Altai Mountains of Mongolia in the northeast, and the Heaven ...
** Retro-foreland to the north of the
Tian Shan
The Tian Shan,, , otk, 𐰴𐰣 𐱅𐰭𐰼𐰃, , tr, Tanrı Dağı, mn, Тэнгэр уул, , ug, تەڭرىتاغ, , , kk, Тәңіртауы / Алатау, , , ky, Теңир-Тоо / Ала-Тоо, , , uz, Tyan-Shan / Tangritog‘ ...
** Formed initially during the Late
Paleozoic
The Paleozoic (or Palaeozoic) Era is the earliest of three geologic eras of the Phanerozoic Eon.
The name ''Paleozoic'' ( ;) was coined by the British geologist Adam Sedgwick in 1838
by combining the Greek words ''palaiós'' (, "old") and ' ...
and rejuvenated during the
Cenozoic
The Cenozoic ( ; ) is Earth's current geological era, representing the last 66million years of Earth's history. It is characterised by the dominance of mammals, birds and flowering plants, a cooling and drying climate, and the current configura ...
** Thickest sedimentary section is west of
Urumqi, where
Mesozoic
The Mesozoic Era ( ), also called the Age of Reptiles, the Age of Conifers, and colloquially as the Age of the Dinosaurs is the second-to-last era of Earth's geological history, lasting from about , comprising the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceo ...
sediment is more than 8,000 metres thick
Middle East
*
Persian Gulf
The Persian Gulf ( fa, خلیج فارس, translit=xalij-e fârs, lit=Gulf of Persis, Fars, ), sometimes called the ( ar, اَلْخَلِيْجُ ٱلْعَرَبِيُّ, Al-Khalīj al-ˁArabī), is a Mediterranean sea (oceanography), me ...
** Foreland to the west of the Zagros mountains
** Underfilled stage
** Terrestrial part of the basin covers parts of Iraq and Kuwait
Europe
*
North Alpine Basin (the Molasse Basin)
** Peripheral foreland basin to the north of the
Alps
The Alps () ; german: Alpen ; it, Alpi ; rm, Alps ; sl, Alpe . are the highest and most extensive mountain range system that lies entirely in Europe, stretching approximately across seven Alpine countries (from west to east): France, Sw ...
, in Austria, Switzerland, Germany and France.
** Formed during the
Palaeocene
The Paleocene, ( ) or Palaeocene, is a geological epoch that lasted from about 66 to 56 million years ago (mya). It is the first epoch of the Paleogene Period in the modern Cenozoic Era. The name is a combination of the Ancient Greek ''palai ...
to
Neogene
The Neogene ( ), informally Upper Tertiary or Late Tertiary, is a geologic period and system that spans 20.45 million years from the end of the Paleogene Period million years ago ( Mya) to the beginning of the present Quaternary Period Mya. ...
(65.5-2.6 Ma) convergence and collision between
Eurasia
Eurasia (, ) is the largest continental area on Earth, comprising all of Europe and Asia. Primarily in the Northern and Eastern Hemispheres, it spans from the British Isles and the Iberian Peninsula in the west to the Japanese archipelago a ...
and the
Adriatic Plate
The Adriatic or Apulian Plate is a small tectonic plate carrying primarily continental crust that broke away from the African Plate along a large transform fault in the Cretaceous period. The name Adriatic Plate is usually used when referring ...
** Complications arise in the formation of the
Rhine Graben
The Upper Rhine Plain, Rhine Rift Valley or Upper Rhine Graben (German: ''Oberrheinische Tiefebene'', ''Oberrheinisches Tiefland'' or ''Oberrheingraben'', French: ''Vallée du Rhin'') is a major rift, about and on average , between Basel in the so ...
*
Po Basin
The Po Valley, Po Plain, Plain of the Po, or Padan Plain ( it, Pianura Padana , or ''Val Padana'') is a major geographical feature of Northern Italy. It extends approximately in an east-west direction, with an area of including its Venetic e ...
, northern Italy.
** Retro-foreland basin of the Western and Central Southern Alps and pro-foreland of the Northern Apennines. It developed through extensional phases followed by compressional stages. Its compressional architecture is overprinted on the inherited extensional framework.
[Fantoni R., Franciosi R., Tectono-sedimentary setting of the Po Plain and Adriatic Foreland, Rendiconti Lincei. Scienze Fisiche e Naturali 21, 2010, pp. 197-20]
/ref>
** The compressional architecture "developed intermittently at the front of two different mountain chains, the Northern Apennines and the Southern Alps, progressively converging one towards the other."
** There were two extensional cycles: a) Eastward pre-rift extension cycles culminating in the Anisian to Carnian (middle to early late Triassic, 247-227 Ma) cycle formation of the carbonate platform
A carbonate platform is a sedimentary body which possesses topographic relief, and is composed of autochthonic calcareous deposits. Platform growth is mediated by sessile organisms whose skeletons build up the reef or by organisms (usually microb ...
and basin system; b) Late Triassic–Liassic syn-rift extension phases related to the Piedmont-Liguria and Ionian oceanic basin spreading. After this the maximum basin widening and deepening was reached with progressive formation of the Lombardian, Belluno, and Adriatic carbonate basins.
* Veneto-Friuli foreland basin, an alluvial plain in north-eastern Italy.
** Developed as the result of superposition of three overlapping foreland systems which differed in age and tectonic movement direction as this plain is the foreland of three surrounding chains. These are: a) the External Dinarides
The Dinaric Alps (), also Dinarides, are a mountain range in Southern and Southcentral Europe, separating the continental Balkan Peninsula from the Adriatic Sea. They stretch from Italy in the northwest through Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Her ...
to the East, with Late Palaeocene to the Middle Eocene WSW vergent main deformation phases; b) the Eastern Southern Alps to the north, with mostly Middle-Late Miocene (17-7 Ma) deformation and south-directed tectonic movement; c) the Northern Apennines
The Apennines or Apennine Mountains (; grc-gre, links=no, Ἀπέννινα ὄρη or Ἀπέννινον ὄρος; la, Appenninus or – a singular with plural meaning;''Apenninus'' (Greek or ) has the form of an adjective, which wou ...
to the southwest, with Plio-Pleistocene (5 Ma-Recent) NE-directed deformation.[Pola M., Ricciato A.,Fantoni R.,Fabbri P., Zampieri D., Architecture of the western margin of the North Adriatic foreland:the Schio-Vicenza fault system, Bollettino Societa Geologica. Italiana, Vol. 133(2), 2014, pp. 223-23]
/ref>
** It is separated from the Central Western Alps and its foreland (the Po foreland basin) by the Lessini and Berici Mountains and Euganei Hills structural high, a relatively undeformed foreland block.
** Flexure began in the Late Cretaceous with an E-ward faint bending due to the build-up of the External Dinaric thrust belt. There followed two main depositional/flexure cycles: a) the Chattian-Langhian cycle (Late Oligocene-Middle Eocene, 28-14 Ma) with a weak northward bending that accommodated sediments mainly from the uplifted and eroded axial sector of the Alps; b) the Serravallian-Early Messinian cycle (Middle to Late Miocene) with a NNW-ward prominent bending due to quick uplift of the Southern Alps. In the Pliocene-Pleistocene only the south-western-most part (southern part of the Veneto Basin) bent towards SW as result of the Northern Apennines build-up.
* Central and Southern Adriatic basins
** Located between Italy
Italy ( it, Italia ), officially the Italian Republic, ) or the Republic of Italy, is a country in Southern Europe. It is located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, and its territory largely coincides with the homonymous geographical re ...
and the Balkan Peninsula
The Balkans ( ), also known as the Balkan Peninsula, is a geographical area in southeastern Europe with various geographical and historical definitions. The region takes its name from the Balkan Mountains that stretch throughout the who ...
. It includes the Adriatic Sea
The Adriatic Sea () is a body of water separating the Italian Peninsula from the Balkan Peninsula. The Adriatic is the northernmost arm of the Mediterranean Sea, extending from the Strait of Otranto (where it connects to the Ionian Sea) to t ...
Istria
Istria ( ; Croatian language, Croatian and Slovene language, Slovene: ; ist, Eîstria; Istro-Romanian language, Istro-Romanian, Italian language, Italian and Venetian language, Venetian: ; formerly in Latin and in Ancient Greek) is the larges ...
, the Gargano
Gargano (, Gargano Apulian Italo-Romance arˈgæːnə is a historical and geographical sub-region in the province of Foggia, Apulia, southeast Italy, consisting of a wide isolated mountain massif made of highland and several peaks and forming ...
Promontory and the Apulian
it, Pugliese
, population_note =
, population_blank1_title =
, population_blank1 =
, demographics_type1 =
, demographics1_footnotes =
, demographics1_title1 =
, demographics1_info1 =
, demographic ...
Peninsula.
** Formed by two orogenies, the Dinarides
The Dinaric Alps (), also Dinarides, are a mountain range in Southern and Southcentral Europe, separating the continental Balkan Peninsula from the Adriatic Sea. They stretch from Italy in the northwest through Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Her ...
orogeny (Latest Cretaceous, 75-66 Ma to Eocene, 56-34 Ma) and Appennine orogeny (Miocene to Pliocene (23-2.6 Ma). It is connected to the Po Basin.
* Foreland basins of the Carpathian Mountains
** Carpathian Foredeep
*** Continuation of North Alpine Molasse Basin to the Western Carpathians
The Western Carpathians are a mountain range and geomorphological province that forms the western part of the Carpathian Mountains.
The mountain belt stretches from the Low Beskids range of the Eastern Carpathians along the border of Poland wi ...
, located in southern Poland
Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe. It is divided into 16 administrative provinces called voivodeships, covering an area of . Poland has a population of over 38 million and is the fifth-most populous ...
and western Ukraine
Ukraine ( uk, Україна, Ukraïna, ) is a country in Eastern Europe. It is the second-largest European country after Russia, which it borders to the east and northeast. Ukraine covers approximately . Prior to the ongoing Russian inv ...
.
** East Carpathian Foreland Basin
*** The foreland basin of the Eastern Carpathian
Divisions of the Carpathians are a categorization of the Carpathian mountains system.
Below is a detailed overview of the major subdivisions and ranges of the Carpathian Mountains. The Carpathians are a "subsystem" of a bigger Alps-Himalaya Sy ...
s which extends through southern Poland, western Ukraine, Moldova and Romania and is 800 km long. In the late Miocene to early Pliocene it was an important sediment supplier to the Dacian Basin and the Black Sea.
** Dacian Basin
*** This is a foreland basin by the Romanian section of the Eastern Carpathians and the Southern Carpathians (also in Romania). It is a post-collisional basin which developed in the Messinian to Pliocene (7-2.6 Ma). Initially the sedimentation from this basin was mostly just in a pre-existent foredeep area. Subsequently it extended southward over the northern part of the Moesian Platform and a part of the Scythian platform.
* Ebro Basin The Ebro Basin was a foreland basin that formed to the south of the Pyrenees during the Paleogene. It was also limited to the southeast by the Catalan Coastal Ranges. It began as a fully marine basin with connections to both the Atlantic Ocean and t ...
** Peripheral foreland basin to the south of the Pyrenees
The Pyrenees (; es, Pirineos ; french: Pyrénées ; ca, Pirineu ; eu, Pirinioak ; oc, Pirenèus ; an, Pirineus) is a mountain range straddling the border of France and Spain. It extends nearly from its union with the Cantabrian Mountains to C ...
, in northern Spain
** Substantial deformation of the foreland basin has occurred in the north, exemplified by the foreland fold and thrust belt
A fold and thrust belt (FTB) is a series of mountainous foothills adjacent to an orogenic belt, which forms due to contractional tectonics. Fold and thrust belts commonly form in the forelands adjacent to major orogens as deformation propagates ou ...
in the western Catalan
Catalan may refer to:
Catalonia
From, or related to Catalonia:
* Catalan language, a Romance language
* Catalans, an ethnic group formed by the people from, or with origins in, Northern or southern Catalonia
Places
* 13178 Catalan, asteroid #1 ...
province. The basin is well known for the spectacular exposures of syn- and post-tectonic sediment strata due to the peculiar drainage evolution of the basin.
* Guadalquivir Basin
** Formed during the Neogene north of the Betic Cordillera
The Baetic System or Betic System ( es, Sistema Bético) is one of the main systems of mountain ranges in Spain. Located in the southern and eastern Iberian Peninsula, it is also known as the Cordilleras Béticas (Baetic Mountain Ranges) or Baet ...
(southern Spain), on a Hercynian basement.[Garcia-Castellanos, D., M. Fernàndez & M. Torné, 2002. Modelling the evolution of the Guadalquivir foreland basin (South Spain). Tectonics 21(3), .]
* Aquitaine Basin
The Aquitaine Basin is the second largest Mesozoic and Cenozoic sedimentary basin in France after the Paris Basin, occupying a large part of the country's southwestern quadrant. Its surface area covers 66,000 km2 onshore. It formed on Varisca ...
** Retro-foreland basin to the north of the Pyrenees, in southern France
North America
* Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin
The Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin (WCSB) underlies of Western Canada including southwestern Manitoba, southern Saskatchewan, Alberta, northeastern British Columbia and the southwest corner of the Northwest Territories. This vast sedimentary ...
** Foreland to the east of the Rocky Mountains, Alberta
Alberta ( ) is one of the thirteen provinces and territories of Canada. It is part of Western Canada and is one of the three prairie provinces. Alberta is bordered by British Columbia to the west, Saskatchewan to the east, the Northwest Ter ...
South America
* Andean foreland basins The Andean foreland basins or Sub-Andean basins are a group of foreland basins located in the western half of South America immediately east of the Andes mountains. The Andean foreland basins in the Amazon River's catchment area are known as the A ...
** Caguán-Putumayo Basin
** Cesar-Ranchería Basin
The Cesar-Ranchería Basin ( es, Cuenca Cesar-Ranchería) is a sedimentary basin in northeastern Colombia. It is located in the southern part of the department of La Guajira and northeastern portion of Cesar. The basin is bound by the Oca Fault ...
** Llanos Basin
The Llanos Basin ( es, Cuenca Llanos) or Eastern Llanos Basin ( es, Cuenca de los Llanos Orientales) is a major sedimentary basin of in northeastern Colombia. The wikt:onshore, onshore foreland basin, foreland on Mesozoic rift basin covers the dep ...
** Magallanes Basin
The Magallanes Basin or Austral Basin is a major sedimentary basin in southern Patagonia. The basin covers a surface of about and has a NNW-SSE oriented shape. The basin is bounded to the west by the Andes mountains and is separated from the Malv ...
** Marañón Basin Marañón may refer to:
* Marañón, Navarre, a town and municipality in Spain
* Marañón River, in Peru
* Marañón Province, in Peru
* Valle del Marañón, a valley in Peru
* Gregorio Marañón (1887–1960), Spanish physician, historian, wr ...
** Middle Magdalena Valley
The Middle Magdalena Valley, Middle Magdalena Basin or Middle Magdalena Valley Basin ( es, Valle Medio del Magdalena, commonly abbreviated to VMM) is an intermontane basin, located in north-central Colombia between the Central and Eastern Ranges of ...
** Neuquén Basin
Neuquén Basin ( es, Cuenca Neuquina) is a sedimentary basin covering most of Neuquén Province in Argentina. The basin originated in the Jurassic and developed through alternating continental and marine conditions well into the Tertiary. The bas ...
** Oriente Basin Oriente, Italian and Spanish language for east, may refer to:
* Oriente, São Paulo, a city in the state of São Paulo, Brazil
* Oriente, San Juan, Puerto Rico, a barrio
* Oriente Province, a region of Cuba before 1976
* Oriente (comarca), Asturia ...
** Ucayali Basin
The Ucayali River ( es, Río Ucayali, ) is the main headstream of the Amazon River. It rises about north of Lake Titicaca, in the Arequipa region of Peru and becomes the Amazon at the confluence of the Marañón close to Nauta city. The city ...
** Upper Magdalena Valley
Upper may refer to:
* Shoe upper or ''vamp'', the part of a shoe on the top of the foot
* Stimulant, drugs which induce temporary improvements in either mental or physical function or both
* ''Upper'', the original film title for the 2013 found fo ...
Ancient foreland basin systems
Asia
* Longmen Shan Basin
** Foreland to the east of the Longmen Shan mountains
** Peak evolution during the Triassic
The Triassic ( ) is a geologic period and system which spans 50.6 million years from the end of the Permian Period 251.902 million years ago ( Mya), to the beginning of the Jurassic Period 201.36 Mya. The Triassic is the first and shortest period ...
to Jurassic
The Jurassic ( ) is a Geological period, geologic period and System (stratigraphy), stratigraphic system that spanned from the end of the Triassic Period million years ago (Mya) to the beginning of the Cretaceous Period, approximately Mya. The J ...
* Urals Foreland
** Foreland to the west of the Ural Mountains
The Ural Mountains ( ; rus, Ура́льские го́ры, r=Uralskiye gory, p=ʊˈralʲskʲɪjə ˈɡorɨ; ba, Урал тауҙары) or simply the Urals, are a mountain range that runs approximately from north to south through western ...
, in Russia
** Formed during the Paleozoic
The Paleozoic (or Palaeozoic) Era is the earliest of three geologic eras of the Phanerozoic Eon.
The name ''Paleozoic'' ( ;) was coined by the British geologist Adam Sedgwick in 1838
by combining the Greek words ''palaiós'' (, "old") and ' ...
Europe
* Windermere Supergroup
The Windermere Supergroup is a geological unit formed during the Ordovician to Silurian periods ~, and exposed in northwest England, including the Pennines and correlates along its strike, in the Isle of Man and Ireland, and down-dip in the South ...
** Foreland basin caused by subduction of Iapetus ocean
The Iapetus Ocean (; ) was an ocean that existed in the late Neoproterozoic and early Paleozoic eras of the geologic timescale (between 600 and 400 million years ago). The Iapetus Ocean was situated in the southern hemisphere, between the paleoco ...
under Avalonia
Avalonia was a microcontinent in the Paleozoic era. Crustal fragments of this former microcontinent underlie south-west Great Britain, southern Ireland, and the eastern coast of North America. It is the source of many of the older rocks of Wester ...
** Ordovician to Silurian in age
** Underlies most of England
North America
* Western Interior Basin
** Foreland to the east of the Sevier orogenic belt
** Covered most of the western and central Northwest Territories
The Northwest Territories (abbreviated ''NT'' or ''NWT''; french: Territoires du Nord-Ouest, formerly ''North-Western Territory'' and ''North-West Territories'' and namely shortened as ''Northwest Territory'') is a federal territory of Canada. ...
; western and central Alberta
Alberta ( ) is one of the thirteen provinces and territories of Canada. It is part of Western Canada and is one of the three prairie provinces. Alberta is bordered by British Columbia to the west, Saskatchewan to the east, the Northwest Ter ...
; central and eastern Montana
Montana () is a state in the Mountain West division of the Western United States. It is bordered by Idaho to the west, North Dakota and South Dakota to the east, Wyoming to the south, and the Canadian provinces of Alberta, British Columbi ...
; Wyoming
Wyoming () is a U.S. state, state in the Mountain states, Mountain West subregion of the Western United States. It is bordered by Montana to the north and northwest, South Dakota and Nebraska to the east, Idaho to the west, Utah to the south ...
; central and eastern Utah
Utah ( , ) is a state in the Mountain West subregion of the Western United States. Utah is a landlocked U.S. state bordered to its east by Colorado, to its northeast by Wyoming, to its north by Idaho, to its south by Arizona, and to it ...
; Colorado
Colorado (, other variants) is a state in the Mountain West subregion of the Western United States. It encompasses most of the Southern Rocky Mountains, as well as the northeastern portion of the Colorado Plateau and the western edge of t ...
; central and eastern New Mexico
)
, population_demonym = New Mexican ( es, Neomexicano, Neomejicano, Nuevo Mexicano)
, seat = Santa Fe
, LargestCity = Albuquerque
, LargestMetro = Tiguex
, OfficialLang = None
, Languages = English, Spanish ( New Mexican), Navajo, Ker ...
; western Texas
Texas (, ; Spanish language, Spanish: ''Texas'', ''Tejas'') is a state in the South Central United States, South Central region of the United States. At 268,596 square miles (695,662 km2), and with more than 29.1 million residents in 2 ...
; eastern Chihuahua; Coahuila
Coahuila (), formally Coahuila de Zaragoza (), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Coahuila de Zaragoza ( es, Estado Libre y Soberano de Coahuila de Zaragoza), is one of the 32 states of Mexico.
Coahuila borders the Mexican states of N ...
; eastern Durango
Durango (), officially named Estado Libre y Soberano de Durango ( en, Free and Sovereign State of Durango; Tepehuán: ''Korian''; Nahuatl: ''Tepēhuahcān''), is one of the 31 states which make up the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico, situated in ...
; northern Zacatecas
, image_map = Zacatecas in Mexico (location map scheme).svg
, map_caption = State of Zacatecas within Mexico
, coordinates =
, coor_pinpoint =
, coordinates_footnotes =
, subdivision_type ...
; Aguascalientes
Aguascalientes (; ), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Aguascalientes ( es, Estado Libre y Soberano de Aguascalientes), is one of the 32 states which comprise the Political divisions of Mexico, Federal Entities of Mexico. At 22°N and ...
; eastern and central Guanajuato
Guanajuato (), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Guanajuato ( es, Estado Libre y Soberano de Guanajuato), is one of the 32 states that make up the Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided into 46 municipalities and its capital city i ...
; western San Luis Potosí
San Luis Potosí (), officially the Free and Sovereign State of San Luis Potosí ( es, Estado Libre y Soberano de San Luis Potosí), is one of the 32 states which compose the Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided in 58 municipalities and i ...
; Querétaro
Querétaro (), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Querétaro ( es, Estado Libre y Soberano de Querétaro, links=no; Otomi language, Otomi: ''Hyodi Ndämxei''), is one of the Political divisions of Mexico, 32 federal entities of Mexico. I ...
; and all but the western edge of Michoacán
Michoacán, formally Michoacán de Ocampo (; Purépecha: ), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Michoacán de Ocampo ( es, Estado Libre y Soberano de Michoacán de Ocampo), is one of the 32 states which comprise the Federal Entities of ...
** Evolved during the Cretaceous
The Cretaceous ( ) is a geological period that lasted from about 145 to 66 million years ago (Mya). It is the third and final period of the Mesozoic Era, as well as the longest. At around 79 million years, it is the longest geological period of th ...
** Deepest parts of the basin filled with the Mancos Shale
The Mancos Shale or Mancos Group is a Late Cretaceous (Upper Cretaceous) geologic formation of the Western United States.
The Mancos Shale was first described by Cross and Purington in 1899 and was named for exposures near the town of Mancos, ...
** Most of the Bighorn Basin
The Bighorn Basin is a plateau region and intermontane basin, approximately 100 miles (160 km) wide, in north-central Wyoming in the United States. It is bounded by the Absaroka Range on the west, the Pryor Mountains on the north, the Bighor ...
filled with the Thermopolis Shale
* Appalachian Basin
** Foreland to the west of the Appalachian mountains, in Eastern United States
* Bend Arch – Fort Worth Basin
** Pro-Foreland to the east of the Ouachita orogenic belt
** Formed during the Paleozoic
The Paleozoic (or Palaeozoic) Era is the earliest of three geologic eras of the Phanerozoic Eon.
The name ''Paleozoic'' ( ;) was coined by the British geologist Adam Sedgwick in 1838
by combining the Greek words ''palaiós'' (, "old") and ' ...
South America
* Foreland to the east of the Central Andes orogenic belt - The Southern Chaco Foreland Basin in northern Argentina
Argentina (), officially the Argentine Republic ( es, link=no, República Argentina), is a country in the southern half of South America. Argentina covers an area of , making it the second-largest country in South America after Brazil, th ...
See also
*Back-arc basin
A back-arc basin is a type of geologic basin, found at some convergent plate boundaries. Presently all back-arc basins are submarine features associated with island arcs and subduction zones, with many found in the western Pacific Ocean. Most of ...
*Back-arc region
The back-arc region is the area behind a volcanic arc. In island volcanic arcs, it consists of back-arc basins of oceanic crust with abyssal depths, which may be separated by remnant arcs, similar to island arcs. In continental arcs, the back-ar ...
*Forearc basin
Forearc is a plate tectonic term referring to a region between an oceanic trench, also known as a subduction zone, and the associated volcanic arc. Forearc regions are present along a convergent margins and eponymously form 'in front of' the vol ...
*Passive margin
A passive margin is the transition between oceanic and continental lithosphere that is not an active plate margin. A passive margin forms by sedimentation above an ancient rift, now marked by transitional lithosphere. Continental rifting creat ...
References
Citations
General and cited references
* Allen, Philip A. and Allen, John R. (2005) Basin Analysis: Principles and Applications, 2nd ed., Blackwell Publishing, 549 pp.
* Allen, M., Jackson, J., and Walker, R. (2004) Late Cenozoic reorganization of the Arabia-Eurasia collision and the comparison of short-term and long-term deformation rates. Tectonics, 23, TC2008, 16 pp.
* Bethke, Craig M. and Marshak, Stephen. (1990) Brine migrations across North America-the plate tectonics of groundwater. Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci., 18, pp. 287–315.
* Catuneanu, Octavian. (2004) Retroarc foreland systems – evolution through time. J. African Earth Sci., 38, pp. 225–242.
*
* Flemings, Peter B. and Jordan, Teresa E. (1989) A synthetic stratigraphic model of foreland basin development. J. Geophys. Res., 94, B4, pp. 3853–3866.
* Garcia-Castellanos, D., J. Vergés, J.M. Gaspar-Escribano & S. Cloetingh, 2003
"Interplay between tectonics, climate and fluvial transport during the Cenozoic evolution of the Ebro Basin (NE Iberia)"
''J. Geophys. Res.'' 108 (B7), 2347. .
* Oliver, Jack. (1986) Fluids expelled tectonically from orogenic belts: their role in hydrocarbon migration and other geologic phenomena. Geology, 14, p. 99–102.
* Sella, Giovanni F., Dixon, Timothy H., Mao, Ailin. (2002) REVEL: a model for current plate velocities from space geodesy. J. Geophys. Res., 107, B4, 2081, 30 pp.
* Zhou, Di, Yu, Ho-Shing, Xu, He-Hua, Shi, Xiao-Bin, Chou, Ying-Wei. (2003) Modeling of thermo-rheological structure of lithosphere under the foreland basin and mountain belt of Taiwan. Tectonophysics, 374, p. 115–134.
Further reading
*
*
*
{{Structural geology
.
Sedimentology
Tectonics