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The geologic time scale, or geological time scale, (GTS) is a representation of
time Time is the continued sequence of existence and event (philosophy), events that occurs in an apparently irreversible process, irreversible succession from the past, through the present, into the future. It is a component quantity of various me ...
based on the rock record of
Earth Earth is the third planet from the Sun and the only astronomical object known to harbor life. While large volumes of water can be found throughout the Solar System, only Earth sustains liquid surface water. About 71% of Earth's sur ...
. It is a system of chronological dating that uses
chronostratigraphy Chronostratigraphy is the branch of stratigraphy that studies the ages of rock strata in relation to time. The ultimate aim of chronostratigraphy is to arrange the sequence of deposition and the time of deposition of all rocks within a geologic ...
(the process of relating strata to time) and geochronology (scientific branch of
geology Geology () is a branch of natural science concerned with Earth and other Astronomical object, astronomical objects, the features or rock (geology), rocks of which it is composed, and the processes by which they change over time. Modern geology ...
that aims to determine the age of rocks). It is used primarily by Earth scientists (including
geologist A geologist is a scientist who studies the solid, liquid, and gaseous matter that constitutes Earth and other terrestrial planets, as well as the processes that shape them. Geologists usually study geology, earth science, or geophysics, althou ...
s, paleontologists, geophysicists, geochemists, and
paleoclimatologists Paleoclimatology ( British spelling, palaeoclimatology) is the study of climates for which direct measurements were not taken. As instrumental records only span a tiny part of Earth's history, the reconstruction of ancient climate is important to ...
) to describe the timing and relationships of events in geologic history. The time scale has been developed through the study of rock layers and the observation of their relationships and identifying features such as
lithologies The lithology of a rock unit is a description of its physical characteristics visible at outcrop, in hand or core samples, or with low magnification microscopy. Physical characteristics include colour, texture, grain size, and composition. Lith ...
,
paleomagnetic Paleomagnetism (or palaeomagnetismsee ), is the study of magnetic fields recorded in rocks, sediment, or archeological materials. Geophysicists who specialize in paleomagnetism are called ''paleomagnetists.'' Certain magnetic minerals in rock ...
properties, and
fossil A fossil (from Classical Latin , ) is any preserved remains, impression, or trace of any once-living thing from a past geological age. Examples include bones, shells, exoskeletons, stone imprints of animals or microbes, objects preserved ...
s. The definition of standardized international units of geologic time is the responsibility of the
International Commission on Stratigraphy The International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS), sometimes referred to unofficially as the "International Stratigraphic Commission", is a daughter or major subcommittee grade scientific daughter organization that concerns itself with stratigr ...
(ICS), a constituent body of the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS), whose primary objective is to precisely define global chronostratigraphic units of the International Chronostratigraphic Chart (ICC) that are used to define divisions of geologic time. The chronostratigraphic divisions are in turn used to define geochronologic units. While some regional terms are still in use, the table of geologic time presented in this article conforms to the
nomenclature Nomenclature (, ) is a system of names or terms, or the rules for forming these terms in a particular field of arts or sciences. The principles of naming vary from the relatively informal conventions of everyday speech to the internationally ag ...
, ages, and color codes set forth by the ICS as this is the standard, reference global geologic time scale – the International Geological Time Scale.


Principles

The geologic time scale is a way of representing deep time based on events that have occurred throughout Earth's history, a time span of about 4.54 ± 0.05 Ga (4.54 billion years). It chronologically organizes strata, and subsequently time, by observing fundamental changes in stratigraphy that correspond to major geological or paleontological events. For example, the
Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event The Cretaceous–Paleogene (K–Pg) extinction event (also known as the Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction) was a sudden mass extinction of three-quarters of the plant and animal species on Earth, approximately 66 million years ago. With the ...
, marks the lower boundary of the Paleogene System/Period and thus the boundary between the
Cretaceous The Cretaceous ( ) is a geological period that lasted from about 145 to 66 million years ago (Mya). It is the third and final period of the Mesozoic Era, as well as the longest. At around 79 million years, it is the longest geological period of ...
and Paleogene Systems/Periods. For divisions prior to the Cryogenian, arbitrary numeric boundary definitions ( Global Standard Stratigraphic Ages, GSSAs) are used to divide geologic time. Proposals have been made to better reconcile these divisions with the rock record. Historically, regional geologic time scales were used due to the litho- and biostratigraphic differences around the world in time equivalent rocks. The ICS has long worked to reconcile conflicting terminology by standardizing globally significant and identifiable stratigraphic horizons that can be used to define the lower boundaries of chronostratigraphic units. Defining chronostratigraphic units in such a manner allows for the use of global, standardised nomenclature. The ICC represents this ongoing effort. The relative relationships of rocks for determining their chronostratigraphic positions use the overriding principles of: * Superposition – Newer rock beds will lie on top of older rock beds unless the succession has been overturned. * Horizontality – All rock layers were originally deposited horizontally. * Lateral continuity – Originally deposited layers of rock extend laterally in all directions until either thinning out or being cut off by a different rock layer. * Biologic succession (where applicable) – This states that each stratum in a succession contains a distinctive set of fossils. This allows for correlation of stratum even when the horizon between them is not continuous. *
Cross-cutting relationships Cross-cutting relationships is a principle of geology that states that the geologic feature which cuts another is the younger of the two features. It is a relative dating technique in geology. It was first developed by Danish geological pioneer ...
– A rock feature that cuts across another feature must be younger than the rock it cuts. * Inclusion – Small fragments of one type of rock but embedded in a second type of rock must have formed first, and were included when the second rock was forming. * Relationships of unconformities – Geologic features representing periods of erosion or non-deposition, indicating non-continuous sediment deposition.


Terminology

The GTS is divided into chronostratigraphic units and their corresponding geochronologic units. These are represented on the ICC published by the ICS; however, regional terms are still in use in some areas. is the element of
stratigraphy Stratigraphy is a branch of geology concerned with the study of rock layers ( strata) and layering (stratification). It is primarily used in the study of sedimentary and layered volcanic rocks. Stratigraphy has three related subfields: lithost ...
that deals with the relation between rock bodies and the relative measurement of geological time. It is the process where distinct strata between defined stratigraphic horizons are assigned to represent a relative interval of geologic time. A is a body of rock, layered or unlayered, that is defined between specified stratigraphic horizons which represent specified intervals of geologic time. They include all rocks representative of a specific interval of geologic time, and only this time span. Eonothem, erathem, system, series, subseries, stage, and substage are the hierarchical chronostratigraphic units. is the scientific branch of geology that aims to determine the age of rocks, fossils, and sediments either through absolute (e.g.,
radiometric dating Radiometric dating, radioactive dating or radioisotope dating is a technique which is used to date materials such as rocks or carbon, in which trace radioactive impurities were selectively incorporated when they were formed. The method compares ...
) or relative means (e.g., stratigraphic position, Paleomagnetism, stable isotope ratios). A is a subdivision of geologic time. It is a numeric representation of an intangible property (time). Eon, era, period, epoch, subepoch, age, and subage are the hierarchical geochronologic units. is the field of geochronology that numerically quantifies geologic time. A (GSSP) is an internationally agreed upon reference point on a stratigraphic section which defines the lower boundaries of stages on the geologic time scale. (Recently this has been used to define the base of a system) A (GSSA) is a numeric only, chronologic reference point used to define the base of geochronologic units prior to the Cryogenian. These points are arbitrarily defined. They are used where GSSPs have not yet been established. Research is ongoing to define GSSPs for the base of all units that are currently defined by GSSAs. The numeric (geochronometric) representation of a geochronologic unit can, and is more frequently subject to, change when geochronology refines the geochronometry, while the equivalent chronostratigraphic unit remains the same, and their revision is less common. For example, in early 2022 the boundary between the Ediacaran and
Cambrian The Cambrian Period ( ; sometimes symbolized Ꞓ) was the first geological period of the Paleozoic Era, and of the Phanerozoic Eon. The Cambrian lasted 53.4 million years from the end of the preceding Ediacaran Period 538.8 million years ago ...
Periods (geochronologic units) was revised from 541 Ma to 538.8 Ma but the rock definition of the boundary (GSSP) at the base of the Cambrian, and thus the boundary between the Ediacaran and Cambrian
Systems A system is a group of interacting or interrelated elements that act according to a set of rules to form a unified whole. A system, surrounded and influenced by its environment, is described by its boundaries, structure and purpose and expresse ...
(chronostratigraphic units) has not changed, merely the geochronometry has been refined. The numeric values on the ICC are represented by the unit Ma (megaannum) meaning "million
year A year or annus is the orbital period of a planetary body, for example, the Earth, moving in its orbit around the Sun. Due to the Earth's axial tilt, the course of a year sees the passing of the seasons, marked by change in weather, the h ...
s", i.e., Ma, the lower boundary of the
Jurassic The Jurassic ( ) is a geologic period and stratigraphic system that spanned from the end of the Triassic Period million years ago (Mya) to the beginning of the Cretaceous Period, approximately Mya. The Jurassic constitutes the middle period of ...
Period, is defined as 201,300,000 years old with an uncertainty of 200,000 years. Other SI prefix units commonly used by geologists are Ga (gigaannum, billion years), and ka (kiloannum, thousand years), with the latter often represented in calibrated units (
before present Before Present (BP) years, or "years before present", is a time scale used mainly in archaeology, geology and other scientific disciplines to specify when events occurred relative to the origin of practical radiocarbon dating in the 1950s. Beca ...
).


Divisions of geologic time

An is the largest (formal) geochronologic time unit and is the equivalent of a chronostratigraphic eonothem. there are three formally defined eons/eonothems: the
Archean The Archean Eon ( , also spelled Archaean or Archæan) is the second of four geologic eons of Earth's history, representing the time from . The Archean was preceded by the Hadean Eon and followed by the Proterozoic. The Earth during the Arc ...
, Proterozoic, and Phanerozoic. The Hadean is an informal eon/eonothem, but is commonly used. An is the second largest geochronologic time unit and is the equivalent of a chronostratigraphic erathem. there are currently ten defined eras/erathems. A is a major rank below an ''era'' and above an ''epoch''. It is the geochronologic equivalent of a chronostratigraphic
system A system is a group of interacting or interrelated elements that act according to a set of rules to form a unified whole. A system, surrounded and influenced by its environment, is described by its boundaries, structure and purpose and express ...
. there are currently 22 defined periods/systems. As an exception two subperiods/subsystems are used for the
Carboniferous The Carboniferous ( ) is a geologic period and system of the Paleozoic that spans 60 million years from the end of the Devonian Period million years ago ( Mya), to the beginning of the Permian Period, million years ago. The name ''Carboniferou ...
Period/System. An is the second smallest geochronologic unit, between a ''period'' and an ''age''. It is the equivalent of a chronostratigraphic series. there are currently 37 defined and one informal ''epochs/series''. There are also 11 subepochs/subseries which are all within the Neogene and Quaternary. The use of subseries/subepochs as formal ranks/units in international chronostratigraphy was ratified in 2022. An is the smallest hierarchical geochronologic unit and is the equivalent of a chronostratigraphic stage. there are currently 96 formal and five informal ''ages/stages''. A is a non-hierarchical formal geochronology unit of unspecified rank and is the equivalent of a chronostratigraphic
chronozone A chronozone or chron is a unit in chronostratigraphy, defined by events such as geomagnetic reversals (magnetozones), or based on the presence of specific fossils (biozone or biochronozone). According to the International Commission on Strati ...
. These correlate with magnetostratigraphic, lithostratigraphic, or biostratigraphic units as they are based on previously defined stratigraphic units or geologic features. The and subdivisions are used as the geochronologic equivalents of the chronostratigraphic and , e.g., Early
Triassic The Triassic ( ) is a geologic period and system which spans 50.6 million years from the end of the Permian Period 251.902 million years ago ( Mya), to the beginning of the Jurassic Period 201.36 Mya. The Triassic is the first and shortest per ...
Period (geochronologic unit) is used in place of Lower Triassic Series (chronostratigraphic unit). In essence, it is true to say that rocks representing a given chronostratigraphic unit are that chronostratigraphic unit, and the time they were laid down in is the geochronologic unit, i.e., the rocks that represent the Silurian Series the Silurian Series and they were deposited the Silurian Period.


Naming of geologic time

The names of geologic time units are defined for chronostratigraphic units with the corresponding geochronologic unit sharing the same name with a change to the latter (e.g. Phanerozoic Eonothem becomes the Phanerozoic Eon). Names of erathems in the Phanerozoic were chosen to reflect major changes of the history of life on Earth:
Paleozoic The Paleozoic (or Palaeozoic) Era is the earliest of three geologic eras of the Phanerozoic Eon. The name ''Paleozoic'' ( ;) was coined by the British geologist Adam Sedgwick in 1838 by combining the Greek words ''palaiós'' (, "old") and ...
(old life),
Mesozoic The Mesozoic Era ( ), also called the Age of Reptiles, the Age of Conifers, and colloquially as the Age of the Dinosaurs is the second-to-last era of Earth's geological history, lasting from about , comprising the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretace ...
(middle life), and
Cenozoic The Cenozoic ( ; ) is Earth's current geological era, representing the last 66million years of Earth's history. It is characterised by the dominance of mammals, birds and flowering plants, a cooling and drying climate, and the current configu ...
(new life). Names of systems are diverse in origin, with some indicating chronologic position (e.g., Paleogene), while others are named for lithology (e.g., Cretaceous),
geography Geography (from Greek: , ''geographia''. Combination of Greek words ‘Geo’ (The Earth) and ‘Graphien’ (to describe), literally "earth description") is a field of science devoted to the study of the lands, features, inhabitants, an ...
(e.g.,
Permian The Permian ( ) is a geologic period and stratigraphic system which spans 47 million years from the end of the Carboniferous Period million years ago (Mya), to the beginning of the Triassic Period 251.9 Mya. It is the last period of the Paleo ...
), or are tribal (e.g., Ordovician) in origin. Most currently recognised series and subseries are named for their position within a system/series (early/middle/late); however, the ICS advocates for all new series and subseries to be named for a geographic feature in the vicinity of its stratotype or type locality. The name of stages should also be derived from a geographic feature in the locality of its stratotype or type locality. Informally, the time before the Cambrian is often referred to as the
Precambrian The Precambrian (or Pre-Cambrian, sometimes abbreviated pꞒ, or Cryptozoic) is the earliest part of Earth's history, set before the current Phanerozoic Eon. The Precambrian is so named because it preceded the Cambrian, the first period of th ...
or pre-Cambrian (Supereon). }, the god of the underworld (the hell, the inferno) in the Greek mythology.


History of the geologic time scale


Early history

While a modern geological time scale was not formulated until 1911 by
Arthur Holmes Arthur Holmes (14 January 1890 – 20 September 1965) was an English geologist who made two major contributions to the understanding of geology. He pioneered the use of radiometric dating of minerals, and was the first earth scientist to grasp ...
, the broader concept that rocks and time are related can be traced back to (at least) the philosophers of
Ancient Greece Ancient Greece ( el, Ἑλλάς, Hellás) was a northeastern Mediterranean civilization, existing from the Greek Dark Ages of the 12th–9th centuries BC to the end of classical antiquity ( AD 600), that comprised a loose collection of cu ...
. Xenophanes of Colophon (c. 570–487  BCE) observed rock beds with fossils of shells located above the sea-level, viewed them as once living organisms, and used this to imply an unstable relationship in which the sea had at times transgressed over the land and at other times had regressed. This view was shared by a few of Xenophanes' contemporaries and those that followed, including
Aristotle Aristotle (; grc-gre, Ἀριστοτέλης ''Aristotélēs'', ; 384–322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Peripatetic school of ...
(384–322 BCE) who (with additional observations) reasoned that the positions of land and sea had changed over long periods of time. The concept of deep time was also recognised by Chinese naturalist Shen Kuo (1031–1095) and
Islam Islam (; ar, ۘالِإسلَام, , ) is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion centred primarily around the Quran, a religious text considered by Muslims to be the direct word of God (or '' Allah'') as it was revealed to Muhammad, the ...
ic
scientist A scientist is a person who conducts scientific research to advance knowledge in an area of the natural sciences. In classical antiquity, there was no real ancient analog of a modern scientist. Instead, philosophers engaged in the philosop ...
-philosophers, notably the Brothers of Purity, who wrote on the processes of stratification over the passage of time in their treatises. Their work likely inspired that of the 11th-century Persian
polymath A polymath ( el, πολυμαθής, , "having learned much"; la, homo universalis, "universal human") is an individual whose knowledge spans a substantial number of subjects, known to draw on complex bodies of knowledge to solve specific pro ...
Avicenna (Ibn Sînâ, 980–1037) who wrote in '' The Book of Healing'' (1027) on the concept of stratification and superposition, pre-dating
Nicolas Steno Niels Steensen ( da, Niels Steensen; Latinized to ''Nicolaus Steno'' or ''Nicolaus Stenonius''; 1 January 1638 – 25 November 1686 Avicenna also recognised fossils as "petrifications of the bodies of plants and animals", with the 13th-century Dominican
bishop A bishop is an ordained clergy member who is entrusted with a position of authority and oversight in a religious institution. In Christianity, bishops are normally responsible for the governance of dioceses. The role or office of bishop is ...
Albertus Magnus (c. 1200–1280) extending this into a theory of a petrifying fluid. These works appeared to have little influence on
scholar A scholar is a person who pursues academic and intellectual activities, particularly academics who apply their intellectualism into expertise in an area of study. A scholar can also be an academic, who works as a professor, teacher, or researche ...
s in
Medieval Europe In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the late 5th to the late 15th centuries, similar to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire a ...
who looked to the
Bible The Bible (from Koine Greek , , 'the books') is a collection of religious texts or scriptures that are held to be sacred in Christianity Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus ...
to explain the origins of fossils and sea-level changes, often attributing these to the ' Deluge', including Ristoro d'Arezzo in 1282. It was not until the
Italian Renaissance The Italian Renaissance ( it, Rinascimento ) was a period in Italian history covering the 15th and 16th centuries. The period is known for the initial development of the broader Renaissance culture that spread across Europe and marked the trans ...
when
Leonardo da Vinci Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci (15 April 14522 May 1519) was an Italian polymath of the High Renaissance who was active as a painter, draughtsman, engineer, scientist, theorist, sculptor, and architect. While his fame initially rested on ...
(1452–1519) would reinvigorate the relationships between stratification, relative sea-level change, and time, denouncing attribution of fossils to the 'Deluge': These views of da Vinci remained unpublished, and thus lacked influence at the time; however, questions of fossils and their significance were pursued and, while views against
Genesis Genesis may refer to: Bible * Book of Genesis, the first book of the biblical scriptures of both Judaism and Christianity, describing the creation of the Earth and of mankind * Genesis creation narrative, the first several chapters of the Book of ...
were not readily accepted and dissent from religious doctrine was in some places unwise, scholars such as Girolamo Fracastoro shared da Vinci's views, and found the attribution of fossils to the 'Deluge' absurd.


Establishment of primary principles

Niels Stensen, more commonly known as Nicolas Steno (1638–1686), is credited with establishing four of the guiding principles of stratigraphy. In ''De solido intra solidum naturaliter contento dissertationis prodromus'' Steno states:
* When any given stratum was being formed, all the matter resting on it was fluid and, therefore, when the lowest stratum was being formed, none of the upper strata existed. * ...strata which are either perpendicular to the horizon or inclined to it were at one time parallel to the horizon. * When any given stratum was being formed, it was either encompassed at its edges by another solid substance or it covered the whole globe of the earth. Hence, it follows that wherever bared edges of strata are seen, either a continuation of the same strata must be looked for or another solid substance must be found that kept the material of the strata from being dispersed. * If a body or discontinuity cuts across a stratum, it must have formed after that stratum.
Respectively, these are the principles of superposition, original horizontality, lateral continuity, and cross-cutting relationships. From this Steno reasoned that strata were laid down in succession and inferred relative time (in Steno's belief, time from
Creation Creation may refer to: Religion *''Creatio ex nihilo'', the concept that matter was created by God out of nothing *Creation myth, a religious story of the origin of the world and how people first came to inhabit it *Creationism, the belief that ...
). While Steno's principles were simple and attracted much attention, applying them proved challenging. These basic principles, albeit with improved and more nuanced interpretations, still form the foundational principles of determining correlation of strata relative geologic time. Over the course of the 18th-century geologists realised that: * Sequences of strata often become eroded, distorted, tilted, or even inverted after deposition * Strata laid down at the same time in different areas could have entirely different appearances * The strata of any given area represented only part of Earth's long history


Formulation of a modern geologic time scale

The apparent, earliest formal division of the geologic record with respect to time was introduced by
Thomas Burnet Thomas Burnet (c. 1635? – 27 September 1715) was an English theologian and writer on cosmogony. Life He was born at Croft near Darlington in 1635. After studying at Northallerton Grammar School under Thomas Smelt, he went to Clare Colle ...
who applied a two-fold terminology to mountains by identifying "''montes primarii''" for rock formed at the time of the 'Deluge', and younger "''monticulos secundarios"'' formed later from the debris of the "''primarii"''. This attribution to the 'Deluge', while questioned earlier by the likes of da Vinci, was the foundation of
Abraham Gottlob Werner Abraham Gottlob Werner (; 25 September 174930 June 1817) was a German geologist who set out an early theory about the stratification of the Earth's crust and propounded a history of the Earth that came to be known as Neptunism. While most tene ...
's (1749–1817)
Neptunism Neptunism is a superseded scientific theory of geology proposed by Abraham Gottlob Werner (1749–1817) in the late 18th century, proposing that rocks formed from the crystallisation of minerals in the early Earth's oceans. The theory took i ...
theory in which all rocks precipitated out of a single flood. A competing theory, Plutonism, was developed by
Anton Moro Anton Lazzaro Moro (1687 in San Vito al Tagliamento – 1764) was an Italian abbot, geologist and naturalist. He was one of the leading advocates of plutonism in the early debate that confronted plutonism to neptunism, making him described by ...
(1687–1784) and also used primary and secondary divisions for rock units. In this early version of the Plutonism theory, the interior of Earth was seen as hot, and this drove the creation of primary igneous and metamorphic rocks and secondary rocks formed contorted and fossiliferous sediments. These primary and secondary divisions were expanded on by Giovanni Targioni Tozzetti (1712–1783) and Giovanni Arduino (1713–1795) to include tertiary and quaternary divisions. These divisions were used to describe both the time during which the rocks were laid down, and the collection of rocks themselves (i.e., it was correct to say Tertiary rocks, and Tertiary Period). Only the Quaternary division is retained in the modern geologic time scale, while the Tertiary division was in use until the early 21st century. The Neputism and Plutonism theories would compete into the early 19th century with a key driver for resolution of this debate being the work of James Hutton (1726–1797), in particular his '' Theory of the Earth'', first presented before the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1785. Hutton's theory would later become known as uniformitarianism, popularised by John Playfair (1748–1819) and later Charles Lyell (1797–1875) in his '' Principles of Geology''. Their theories strongly contested the 6,000 year age of the Earth as suggested determined by James Ussher via Biblical chronology that was accepted at the time by western religion. Instead, using geological evidence, they contested Earth to be much older, cementing the concept of deep time. During the early 19th century William Smith, Georges Cuvier, Jean d'Omalius d'Halloy, and
Alexandre Brongniart Alexandre Brongniart (5 February 17707 October 1847) was a French chemist, mineralogist, geologist, paleontologist, and zoologist, who collaborated with Georges Cuvier on a study of the geology of the region around Paris. Observing fossil content ...
pioneered the systematic division of rocks by stratigraphy and fossil assemblages. These geologists began to use the local names given to rock units in a wider sense, correlating strata across national and continental boundaries based on their similarity to each other. Many of the names below erathem/era rank in use on the modern ICC/GTS were determined during the early to mid-19th century.


The advent of geochronometry

During the 19th century, the debate regarding Earth's age was renewed, with geologists estimating ages based on denudation rates and sedimentary thicknesses or ocean chemistry, and physicists determining ages for the cooling of the Earth or the Sun using basic
thermodynamics Thermodynamics is a branch of physics that deals with heat, work, and temperature, and their relation to energy, entropy, and the physical properties of matter and radiation. The behavior of these quantities is governed by the four laws ...
or orbital physics. These estimations varied from 15,000 million years to 0.075 million years depending on method and author, but the estimations of Lord Kelvin and
Clarence King Clarence Rivers King (January 6, 1842 – December 24, 1901) was an American geologist, mountaineer and author. He was the first director of the United States Geological Survey from 1879 to 1881. Nominated by Republican President Rutherford B. H ...
were held in high regard at the time due to their pre-eminence in physics and geology. All of these early geochronometric determinations would later prove to be incorrect. The discovery of radioactive decay by Henri Becquerel,
Marie Curie Marie Salomea Skłodowska–Curie ( , , ; born Maria Salomea Skłodowska, ; 7 November 1867 – 4 July 1934) was a Polish and naturalized-French physicist and chemist who conducted pioneering research on radioactivity. She was the fir ...
, and
Pierre Curie Pierre Curie ( , ; 15 May 1859 – 19 April 1906) was a French physicist, a pioneer in crystallography, magnetism, piezoelectricity, and radioactivity. In 1903, he received the Nobel Prize in Physics with his wife, Marie Curie, and Henri Becq ...
laid the ground work for radiometric dating, but the knowledge and tools required for accurate determination of radiometric ages would not be in place until the mid-1950s. Early attempts at determining ages of uranium minerals and rocks by Ernest Rutherford,
Bertram Boltwood Bertram Borden Boltwood (July 27, 1870 Amherst, Massachusetts – August 15, 1927, Hancock Point, Maine) was an American pioneer of radiochemistry. Boltwood attended Yale University, became a professor there and in 1910 was appointed chair of t ...
, Robert Strutt, and Arthur Holmes, would culminate in what are considered the first international geological time scales by Holmes in 1911 and 1913. The discovery of
isotope Isotopes are two or more types of atoms that have the same atomic number (number of protons in their nuclei) and position in the periodic table (and hence belong to the same chemical element), and that differ in nucleon numbers ( mass num ...
s in 1913 by Frederick Soddy, and the developments in mass spectrometry pioneered by Francis William Aston, Arthur Jeffrey Dempster, and Alfred O. C. Nier during the early to mid-
20th century The 20th (twentieth) century began on January 1, 1901 ( MCMI), and ended on December 31, 2000 ( MM). The 20th century was dominated by significant events that defined the modern era: Spanish flu pandemic, World War I and World War II, nucle ...
would finally allow for the accurate determination of radiometric ages, with Holmes publishing several revisions to his ''geological time-scale'' with his final version in 1960.


Modern international geologic time scale

The establishment of the IUGS in 1961 and acceptance of the Commission on Stratigraphy (applied in 1965) to become a member commission of IUGS led to the founding of the ICS. One of the primary objectives of the ICS is "the establishment, publication and revision of the ICS International Chronostratigraphic Chart which is the standard, reference global Geological Time Scale to include the ratified Commission decisions". Following on from Holmes, several ''A Geological Time Scale'' books were published in 1982, 1989, 2004, 2008, 2012, 2016, and 2020. However, since 2013, the ICS has taken responsibility for producing and distributing the ICC citing the commercial nature, independent creation, and lack of oversight by the ICS on the prior published GTS versions (GTS books prior to 2013) although these versions were published in close association with the ICS. Subsequent ''Geologic Time Scale'' books (2016 and 2020) are commercial publications with no oversight from the ICS, and do not entirely conform to the chart produced by the ICS. The ICS produced GTS charts are versioned (year/month) beginning at v2013/01. At least one new version is published each year incorporating any changes ratified by the ICS since the prior version.


Major proposed revisions to the ICC


Proposed Anthropocene Series/Epoch

First suggested in 2000, the ''Anthropocene'' is a proposed epoch/series for the most recent time in Earth's history. While still informal, it is a widely used term to denote the present geologic time interval, in which many conditions and processes on Earth are profoundly altered by human impact. the Anthropocene has not been ratified by the ICS; however, in May 2019 the
Anthropocene Working Group The Anthropocene Working Group (AWG) is an interdisciplinary research group dedicated to the study of the Anthropocene as a geological time unit. It was established in 2009 as part of the Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy (SQS), a constituent ...
voted in favour of submitting a formal proposal to the ICS for the establishment of the Anthropocene Series/Epoch. Nevertheless, the definition of the Anthropocene as a geologic time period rather than a geologic event remains controversial and difficult.


Proposals for revisions to pre-Cryogenian timeline


Shields et al. 2021

An international working group of the ICS on pre-Cryogenian chronostratigraphic subdivision have outlined a template to improve the pre-Cyrogenian geologic time scale based on the rock record to bring it in line with the post-Tonian geologic time scale. This work assessed the geologic history of the currently defined eons and eras of the pre-Cambrian, and the proposals in the "Geological Time Scale" books ''2004,'' ''2012,'' and ''2020.'' Their recommend revisions of the pre-Cryogenian geologic time scale were (changes from the current scale 2022/02are italicised): * Three divisions of the Archean instead of four by dropping Eoarchean, and revisions to their geochronometric definition, along with the repositioning of the Siderian into the latest Neoarchean, and a potential Kratian division in the Neoarchean. ** Archean (4000–''2450'' Ma) *** Paleoarchean (4000–''3500'' Ma) *** Mesoarchean (''3500–3000'' Ma) *** Neoarchean (''3000–2450'' Ma) **** ''Kratian'' (no fixed time given, prior to the Siderian) – from Greek word ''κράτος'' (krátos), meaning strength. **** Siderian (?–''2450'' Ma) – moved from Proterozoic to end of Archean, no start time given, base of Paleoproterozoic defines the end of the Siderian * Refinement of geochronometric divisions of the Proterozoic, Paleoproterozoic, repositioning of the Statherian into the Mesoproterozoic, new Skourian period/system in the Paleoproterozoic, new Kleisian or Syndian period/system in the Neoproterozoic. ** Paleoproterozoic (''2450–1800'' Ma) *** ''Skourian'' (''2450''–2300 Ma) – from the Greek word σκουριά (''skouriá''), meaning 'rust'. *** Rhyacian (2300–2050 Ma) *** Orosirian (2050–1800 Ma) ** Mesoproterozoic (''1800''–1000 Ma) *** ''Statherian'' (1800–1600 Ma) *** Calymmian (1600–1400 Ma) *** Ectasian (1400-1200 Ma) *** Stenian (1200–1000 Ma) ** Neoproterozoic (1000–538.8 Ma) *** ''Kleisian'' or ''Syndian'' (''1000–800'' Ma) – respectively from the Greek words κλείσιμο (''kleísimo'') meaning 'closure', and σύνδεση (''sýndesi'') meaning 'connection'. *** Tonian (''800''–720 Ma) *** Cryogenian (720–635 Ma) *** Ediacaran (635–538.8 Ma) Proposed pre-Cambrian timeline (Shield et al. 2021, ICS working group on pre-Cryogenian chronostratigraphy), shown to scale: ImageSize = width:1300 height:100 PlotArea = left:80 right:20 bottom:20 top:5 AlignBars = justify Colors = id:proterozoic value:rgb(0.968,0.207,0.388) id:neoproterozoic value:rgb(0.996,0.701,0.258) id:ediacaran value:rgb(0.996,0.85,0.415) id:cryogenian value:rgb(0.996,0.8,0.36) id:tonian value:rgb(0.996,0.75,0.305) id:kleisian value:rgb(0.996,0.773,0.431) id:mesoproterozoic value:rgb(0.996,0.705,0.384) id:stenian value:rgb(0.996,0.85,0.604) id:ectasian value:rgb(0.996,0.8,0.541) id:calymmian value:rgb(0.996,0.75,0.478) id:paleoproterozoic value:rgb(0.968,0.263,0.44) id:skourian value:rgb(0.949,0.439,0.545) id:statherian value:rgb(0.968,0.459,0.655) id:orosirian value:rgb(0.968,0.408,0.596) id:rhyacian value:rgb(0.968,0.357,0.537) id:archean value:rgb(0.996,0.157,0.498) id:neoarchean value:rgb(0.976,0.608,0.757) id:mesoarchean value:rgb(0.968,0.408,0.662) id:paleoarchean value:rgb(0.96,0.266,0.624) id:hadean value:rgb(0.717,0,0.494) id:black value:black id:white value:white Period = from:-4600 till:-538.8 TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:500 start:-4500 ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:100 start:-4500 PlotData = align:center textcolor:black fontsize:8 mark:(line,black) width:25 shift:(0,-5) bar:Eonothem/Eon from: -2450 till: -538.8 text:Proterozoic color:proterozoic from: -4000 till: -2450 text:Archean color:archean from: start till: -4000 text:Hadean color:hadean bar:Erathem/Era from: -1000 till: -538.8 text:Neoproterozoic color:neoproterozoic from: -1800 till: -1000 text:Mesoproterozoic color:mesoproterozoic from: -2450 till: -1800 text:Paleoproterozoic color:paleoproterozoic from: -3000 till: -2450 text:Neoarchean color:neoarchean from: -3300 till: -3000 text:Mesoarchean color:mesoarchean from: -4000 till: -3300 text:Paleoarchean color:paleoarchean from: start till: -4000 color:white bar:System/Period fontsize:7 from: -635 till: -538.8 text:Ed. color:ediacaran from: -720 till: -635 text:Cr. color:cryogenian from: -800 till: -720 text:Tonian color:tonian from: -1000 till: -800 text:?kleisian color:kleisian from: -1200 till: -1000 text:Stenian color:stenian from: -1400 till: -1200 text:Ectasian color:ectasian from: -1600 till: -1400 text:Calymmian color:calymmian from: -1800 till: -1600 text:Statherian color:statherian from: -2050 till: -1800 text:Orosirian color:orosirian from: -2300 till: -2050 text:Rhyacian color:rhyacian from: -2450 till: -2300 text:?Skourian color:skourian from: -2700 till: -2450 text:Siderian color:neoarchean from: -3000 till: -2700 text:?Kratian color:neoarchean from: start till: -3000 color:white Current ICC pre-Cambrian timeline (v2022/02), shown to scale: ImageSize = width:1300 height:100 PlotArea = left:80 right:20 bottom:20 top:5 AlignBars = justify Colors = id:proterozoic value:rgb(0.968,0.207,0.388) id:neoproterozoic value:rgb(0.996,0.701,0.258) id:ediacaran value:rgb(0.996,0.85,0.415) id:cryogenian value:rgb(0.996,0.8,0.36) id:tonian value:rgb(0.996,0.75,0.305) id:mesoproterozoic value:rgb(0.996,0.705,0.384) id:stenian value:rgb(0.996,0.85,0.604) id:ectasian value:rgb(0.996,0.8,0.541) id:calymmian value:rgb(0.996,0.75,0.478) id:paleoproterozoic value:rgb(0.968,0.263,0.44) id:statherian value:rgb(0.968,0.459,0.655) id:orosirian value:rgb(0.968,0.408,0.596) id:rhyacian value:rgb(0.968,0.357,0.537) id:siderian value:rgb(0.968,0.306,0.478) id:archean value:rgb(0.996,0.157,0.498) id:neoarchean value:rgb(0.976,0.608,0.757) id:mesoarchean value:rgb(0.968,0.408,0.662) id:paleoarchean value:rgb(0.96,0.266,0.624) id:eoarchean value:rgb(0.902,0.114,0.549) id:hadean value:rgb(0.717,0,0.494) id:black value:black id:white value:white Period = from:-4600 till:-538.8 TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:500 start:-4500 ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:100 start:-4500 PlotData = align:center textcolor:black fontsize:8 mark:(line,black) width:25 shift:(0,-5) bar:Eonothem/Eon from: -2500 till: -538.8 text:Proterozoic color:proterozoic from: -4000 till: -2500 text:Archean color:archean from: start till: -4000 text:Hadean color:hadean bar:Erathem/Era from: -1000 till: -538.8 text:Neoproterozoic color:neoproterozoic from: -1600 till: -1000 text:Mesoproterozoic color:mesoproterozoic from: -2500 till: -1600 text:Paleoproterozoic color:paleoproterozoic from: -2800 till: -2500 text:Neoarchean color:neoarchean from: -3200 till: -2800 text:Mesoarchean color:mesoarchean from: -3600 till: -3200 text:Paleoarchean color:paleoarchean from: -4000 till: -3600 text:Eoarchean color:eoarchean from: start till: -4000 color:white bar:Sytem/Period fontsize:7 from: -635 till: -538.8 text:Ed. color:ediacaran from: -720 till: -635 text:Cr. color:cryogenian from: -1000 till: -720 text:Tonian color:tonian from: -1200 till: -1000 text:Stenian color:stenian from: -1400 till: -1200 text:Ectasian color:ectasian from: -1600 till: -1400 text:Calymmian color:calymmian from: -1800 till: -1600 text:Statherian color:statherian from: -2050 till: -1800 text:Orosirian color:orosirian from: -2300 till: -2050 text:Rhyacian color:rhyacian from: -2500 till: -2300 text:Siderian color:siderian from: start till: -2500 color:white


Van Kranendonk et al. 2012 (GTS2012)

The book, ''Geologic Time Scale 2012,'' was the last commercial publication of an international chronostratigraphic chart that was closely associated with the ICS. It included a proposal to substantially revise the pre-Cryogenian time scale to reflect important events such as the
formation of the solar system The formation of the Solar System began about 4.6 billion years ago with the gravitational collapse of a small part of a giant molecular cloud. Most of the collapsing mass collected in the center, forming the Sun, while the rest flattened into a ...
and the Great Oxidation Event, among others, while at the same time maintaining most of the previous chronostratigraphic nomenclature for the pertinent time span. these proposed changes have not been accepted by the ICS. The proposed changes were (changes from the current scale 2022/02are italicised): * Hadean Eon (''4567–4030'' Ma) ** Chaotian Era/Erathem (4567–4404 Ma) – the name alluding both to the mythological Chaos and the
chaotic Chaotic was originally a Danish trading card game. It expanded to an online game in America which then became a television program based on the game. The program was able to be seen on 4Kids TV (Fox affiliates, nationwide), Jetix, The CW4Kid ...
phase of
planet formation The nebular hypothesis is the most widely accepted model in the field of cosmogony to explain the formation and evolution of the Solar System (as well as other planetary systems). It suggests the Solar System is formed from gas and dust orbiting t ...
. ** ''Jack Hillsian'' or ''Zirconian'' Era/Erathem (''4404–4030'' Ma) – both names allude to the Jack Hills Greenstone Belt which provided the oldest mineral grains on Earth,
zircon Zircon () is a mineral belonging to the group of nesosilicates and is a source of the metal zirconium. Its chemical name is zirconium(IV) silicate, and its corresponding chemical formula is Zr SiO4. An empirical formula showing some of t ...
s. * Archean Eon/Eonothem (''4030–2420'' Ma) ** Paleoarchean Era/Erathem (''4030–3490'' Ma) *** ''Acastan'' Period/System (''4030–3810'' Ma) – named after the Acasta Gneiss, one of the oldest preserved pieces of continental crust. *** ''Isuan'' Period (3''810–3490'' Ma) – named after the Isua Greenstone Belt. ** Mesoarchean Era/Erathem (''3490–2780'' Ma) *** ''Vaalbaran'' Period/System (''3490–3020'' Ma) – based on the names of the Kapvaal (Southern Africa) and
Pilbara The Pilbara () is a large, dry, thinly populated region in the north of Western Australia. It is known for its Aboriginal peoples; its ancient landscapes; the red earth; and its vast mineral deposits, in particular iron ore. It is also a g ...
(Western Australia)
craton A craton (, , or ; from grc-gre, κράτος "strength") is an old and stable part of the continental lithosphere, which consists of Earth's two topmost layers, the crust and the uppermost mantle. Having often survived cycles of merging and ...
s, to reflect the growth of stable continental nuclei or proto-
craton A craton (, , or ; from grc-gre, κράτος "strength") is an old and stable part of the continental lithosphere, which consists of Earth's two topmost layers, the crust and the uppermost mantle. Having often survived cycles of merging and ...
ic kernels. *** ''Pongolan'' Period/System (''3020–2780'' Ma) – named after the Pongola Supergroup, in reference to the well preserved evidence of terrestrial microbial communities in those rocks. ** Neoarchean Era/Erathem (''2780–2420'' Ma) *** ''Methanian'' Period/System (''2780–2630'' Ma) – named for the inferred predominance of methanotrophic prokaryotes *** Siderian Period/System (''2630–2420'' Ma) – named for the voluminous banded iron formations formed within its duration. * Proterozoic Eon/Eonothem (''2420''–538.8 Ma) ** Paleoproterozoic Era/Erathem (''2420–1780'' Ma) *** ''Oxygenian'' Period/System (''2420–2250'' Ma) – named for displaying the first evidence for a global oxidizing atmosphere. *** ''Jatulian'' or ''Eukaryian'' Period/System (''2250–2060'' Ma) – names are respectively for the Lomagundi–Jatuli δ13C isotopic excursion event spanning its duration, and for the (proposed) first fossil appearance of eukaryotes. *** ''Columbian Period/System'' (''2060–1780'' Ma) – named after the supercontinent
Columbia Columbia may refer to: * Columbia (personification), the historical female national personification of the United States, and a poetic name for America Places North America Natural features * Columbia Plateau, a geologic and geographic region i ...
. ** Mesoproterozoic Era/Erathem (''1780–850'' Ma) *** ''Rodinian'' Period/System (''1780–850'' Ma) – named after the supercontinent Rodinia, stable environment. Proposed pre-Cambrian timeline (GTS2012), shown to scale: ImageSize = width:1200 height:100 PlotArea = left:80 right:20 bottom:20 top:5 AlignBars = justify Colors = id:proterozoic value:rgb(0.968,0.207,0.388) id:neoproterozoic value:rgb(0.996,0.701,0.258) id:ediacaran value:rgb(0.996,0.85,0.415) id:cryogenian value:rgb(0.996,0.8,0.36) id:tonian value:rgb(0.996,0.75,0.305) id:mesoproterozoic value:rgb(0.996,0.705,0.384) id:rodinian value:rgb(0.996,0.75,0.478) id:paleoproterozoic value:rgb(0.968,0.263,0.44) id:columbian value:rgb(0.968,0.459,0.655) id:eukaryian value:rgb(0.968,0.408,0.596) id:oxygenian value:rgb(0.968,0.357,0.537) id:archean value:rgb(0.996,0.157,0.498) id:neoarchean value:rgb(0.976,0.608,0.757) id:siderian value:rgb(0.976,0.7,0.85) id:methanian value:rgb(0.976,0.65,0.8) id:mesoarchean value:rgb(0.968,0.408,0.662) id:pongolan value:rgb(0.968,0.5,0.75) id:vaalbaran value:rgb(0.968,0.45,0.7) id:paleoarchean value:rgb(0.96,0.266,0.624) id:isuan value:rgb(0.96,0.35,0.65) id:acastan value:rgb(0.96,0.3,0.6) id:hadean value:rgb(0.717,0,0.494) id:zirconian value:rgb(0.902,0.114,0.549) id:chaotian value:rgb(0.8,0.05,0.5) id:black value:black id:white value:white Period = from:-4600 till:-538.8 TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:500 start:-4500 ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:100 start:-4500 PlotData = align:center textcolor:black fontsize:8 mark:(line,black) width:25 shift:(0,-5) bar:Eonothem/Eon from: -2420 till: -538.8 text:Proterozoic color:proterozoic from: -4030 till: -2420 text:Archean color:archean from: -4567 till: -4030 text:Hadean color:hadean from: start till: -4567 color:white bar:Erathem/Era from: -850 till: -538.8 text:Neoproterozoic color:neoproterozoic from: -1780 till: -850 text:Mesoproterozoic color:mesoproterozoic from: -2420 till: -1780 text:Paleoproterozoic color:paleoproterozoic from: -2780 till: -2420 text:Neoarchean color:neoarchean from: -3490 till: -2780 text:Mesoarchean color:mesoarchean from: -4030 till: -3490 text:Paleoarchean color:paleoarchean from: -4404 till: -4030 text:Zirconian color:zirconian from: -4567 till: -4404 text:Chaotian color:chaotian from: start till: -4567 color:white bar:System/Period fontsize:7 from: -630 till: -538.8 text:Ed. color:ediacaran from: -850 till: -630 text:Cr. color:cryogenian from: -1780 till: -850 text:Rodinian color:rodinian from: -2060 till: -1780 text:Columbian color:columbian from: -2250 till: -2060 text:Eukaryian color:eukaryian from: -2420 till: -2250 text:Oxygenian color:oxygenian from: -2630 till: -2420 text:Siderian color:siderian from: -2780 till: -2630 text:Methanian color:methanian from: -3020 till: -2780 text:Pongolan color:pongolan from: -3490 till: -3020 text:Vaalbaran color:vaalbaran from: -3810 till: -3490 text:Isuan color:isuan from: -4030 till: -3810 text:Acastan color:acastan from: start till: -4030 color:white Current ICC pre-Cambrian timeline (v2022/02), shown to scale: ImageSize = width:1200 height:100 PlotArea = left:80 right:20 bottom:20 top:5 AlignBars = justify Colors = id:proterozoic value:rgb(0.968,0.207,0.388) id:neoproterozoic value:rgb(0.996,0.701,0.258) id:ediacaran value:rgb(0.996,0.85,0.415) id:cryogenian value:rgb(0.996,0.8,0.36) id:tonian value:rgb(0.996,0.75,0.305) id:mesoproterozoic value:rgb(0.996,0.705,0.384) id:stenian value:rgb(0.996,0.85,0.604) id:ectasian value:rgb(0.996,0.8,0.541) id:calymmian value:rgb(0.996,0.75,0.478) id:paleoproterozoic value:rgb(0.968,0.263,0.44) id:statherian value:rgb(0.968,0.459,0.655) id:orosirian value:rgb(0.968,0.408,0.596) id:rhyacian value:rgb(0.968,0.357,0.537) id:siderian value:rgb(0.968,0.306,0.478) id:archean value:rgb(0.996,0.157,0.498) id:neoarchean value:rgb(0.976,0.608,0.757) id:mesoarchean value:rgb(0.968,0.408,0.662) id:paleoarchean value:rgb(0.96,0.266,0.624) id:eoarchean value:rgb(0.902,0.114,0.549) id:hadean value:rgb(0.717,0,0.494) id:black value:black id:white value:white Period = from:-4600 till:-538.8 TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:500 start:-4500 ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:100 start:-4500 PlotData = align:center textcolor:black fontsize:8 mark:(line,black) width:25 shift:(0,-5) bar:Eonothem/Eon from: -2500 till: -538.8 text:Proterozoic color:proterozoic from: -4000 till: -2500 text:Archean color:archean from: start till: -4000 text:Hadean color:hadean bar:Erathem/Era from: -1000 till: -538.8 text:Neoproterozoic color:neoproterozoic from: -1600 till: -1000 text:Mesoproterozoic color:mesoproterozoic from: -2500 till: -1600 text:Paleoproterozoic color:paleoproterozoic from: -2800 till: -2500 text:Neoarchean color:neoarchean from: -3200 till: -2800 text:Mesoarchean color:mesoarchean from: -3600 till: -3200 text:Paleoarchean color:paleoarchean from: -4000 till: -3600 text:Eoarchean color:eoarchean from: start till: -4000 color:white bar:System/Period fontsize:7 from: -635 till: -538.8 text:Ed. color:ediacaran from: -720 till: -635 text:Cr. color:cryogenian from: -1000 till: -720 text:Tonian color:tonian from: -1200 till: -1000 text:Stenian color:stenian from: -1400 till: -1200 text:Ectasian color:ectasian from: -1600 till: -1400 text:Calymmian color:calymmian from: -1800 till: -1600 text:Statherian color:statherian from: -2050 till: -1800 text:Orosirian color:orosirian from: -2300 till: -2050 text:Rhyacian color:rhyacian from: -2500 till: -2300 text:Siderian color:siderian from: start till: -2500 color:white


Table of geologic time

The following table summarises the major events and characteristics of the divisions making up the geologic time scale of Earth. This table is arranged with the most recent geologic periods at the top, and the oldest at the bottom. The height of each table entry does not correspond to the duration of each subdivision of time. As such, this table is not to scale and does not accurately represent the relative time-spans of each geochronologic unit. While the Phanerozoic Eon looks longer than the rest, it merely spans ~539 million years (~12% of Earth's history), whilst the previous three eons collectively span ~3,461 million years (~76% of Earth's history). This bias toward the most recent eon is in part due to the relative lack of information about events that occurred during the first three eons compared to the current eon (the Phanerozoic). The use of subseries/subepochs has been ratified by the ICS. The content of the table is based on the official ICC produced and maintained by the ICS who also provide an online interactive version of this chart. The interactive version is based on a service delivering a machine-readable Resource Description Framework/ Web Ontology Language representation of the time scale, which is available through the Commission for the Management and Application of Geoscience Information GeoSciML project as a service and at a SPARQL end-point.


Non-Earth based geologic time scales

Some other planets and satellites in the
Solar System The Solar System Capitalization of the name varies. The International Astronomical Union, the authoritative body regarding astronomical nomenclature, specifies capitalizing the names of all individual astronomical objects but uses mixed "Solar ...
have sufficiently rigid structures to have preserved records of their own histories, for example, Venus,
Mars Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun and the second-smallest planet in the Solar System, only being larger than Mercury. In the English language, Mars is named for the Roman god of war. Mars is a terrestrial planet with a thin at ...
and the Earth's
Moon The Moon is Earth's only natural satellite. It is the fifth largest satellite in the Solar System and the largest and most massive relative to its parent planet, with a diameter about one-quarter that of Earth (comparable to the width of ...
. Dominantly fluid planets, such as the gas giants, do not comparably preserve their history. Apart from the Late Heavy Bombardment, events on other planets probably had little direct influence on the Earth, and events on Earth had correspondingly little effect on those planets. Construction of a time scale that links the planets is, therefore, of only limited relevance to the Earth's time scale, except in a Solar System context. The existence, timing, and terrestrial effects of the Late Heavy Bombardment are still a matter of debate.


Lunar (selenological) time scale

The geologic history of Earth's Moon has been divided into a time scale based on
geomorphological Geomorphology (from Ancient Greek: , ', "earth"; , ', "form"; and , ', "study") is the scientific study of the origin and evolution of topographic and bathymetric features created by physical, chemical or biological processes operating at or ...
markers, namely impact cratering, volcanism, and
erosion Erosion is the action of surface processes (such as water flow or wind) that removes soil, rock, or dissolved material from one location on the Earth's crust, and then transports it to another location where it is deposited. Erosion is d ...
. This process of dividing the Moon's history in this manner means that the time scale boundaries do not imply fundamental changes in geological processes, unlike Earth's geologic time scale. Five geologic systems/periods ( Pre-Nectarian, Nectarian, Imbrian, Eratosthenian, Copernican), with the Imbrian divided into two series/epochs (Early and Late) were defined in the latest Lunar geologic time scale. The Moon is unique in the Solar System that is the only other body which we have rock samples with a known geological context.


Martian geologic time scale

The
geological history of Mars The geological history of Mars follows the physical evolution of Mars as substantiated by observations, indirect and direct measurements, and various inference techniques. Methods dating back to 17th century techniques developed by Nicholas Steno, ...
has been divided into two alternate time scales. The first time scale for Mars was developed by studying the impact crater densities on the Martian surface. Through this method four periods have been defined, the Pre-Noachian (~4,500–4,100 Ma), Noachian (~4,100–3,700 Ma), Hesperian (~3,700–3,000 Ma), and Amazonian (~3,000 Ma to present). A second time scale based on mineral alteration observed by the OMEGA spectrometer on-board the Mars Express. Using this method, three periods were defined, the Phyllocian (~4,500–4,000 Ma), Theiikian (~4,000–3,500 Ma), and Siderikian (~3,500 Ma to present). ImageSize = width:800 height:50 PlotArea = left:15 right:15 bottom:20 top:5 AlignBars = early Period = from:-4500 till:0 TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:500 start:-4500 ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:100 start:-4500 Colors = id:sidericol value:rgb(1,0.4,0.3) id:theiicol value:rgb(1,0.2,0.5) id:phyllocol value:rgb(0.7,0.4,1) PlotData= align:center textcolor:black fontsize:8 mark:(line,black) width:25 shift:(0,-5) text:Siderikan from:-3500 till:0 color:sidericol text:Theiikian from:-4000 till:-3500 color:theiicol text:Phyllocian from:start till:-4000 color:phyllocol


See also

* Age of the Earth * Cosmic calendar * Deep time * Evolutionary history of life * Formation and evolution of the Solar System * Geological history of Earth *
Geology of Mars The geology of Mars is the scientific study of the surface, crust, and interior of the planet Mars. It emphasizes the composition, structure, history, and physical processes that shape the planet. It is analogous to the field of terrestrial g ...
* Geon (geology) *
Graphical timeline of the universe This more than 20-billion-year timeline of our universe shows the best estimates of major events from the universe's beginning to anticipated future events. Zero on the scale is the present day. A large step on the scale is one billion years; a s ...
* History of the Earth * History of geology * History of paleontology * List of fossil sites * List of geochronologic names *
Logarithmic timeline A logarithmic timeline is a timeline laid out according to a logarithmic scale. This necessarily implies a zero point and an infinity point, neither of which can be displayed. The most natural zero point is the Big Bang, looking forward, but ...
* Lunar geologic timescale *
Martian geologic timescale The geological history of Mars follows the physical evolution of Mars as substantiated by observations, indirect and direct measurements, and various inference techniques. Methods dating back to 17th century techniques developed by Nicholas Steno, ...
* Natural history * New Zealand geologic time scale *
Prehistoric life The history of life on Earth traces the processes by which living and fossil organisms evolved, from the earliest emergence of life to present day. Earth formed about 4.5 billion years ago (abbreviated as ''Ga'', for ''gigaannum'') and evide ...
* Timeline of the Big Bang * Timeline of evolution * Timeline of the geologic history of the United States * Timeline of human evolution * Timeline of natural history *
Timeline of paleontology Timeline of paleontology Antiquity – 16th century * 6th century B.C. — The pre-Socratic Greek philosopher Xenophanes of Colophon argues that fossils of marine organisms show that dry land was once under water. * 4th century B.C. � ...


Notes


References


Further reading

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Nichols, Gary (2013).
Sedimentology and Stratigraphy
' (2nd ed.). Hoboken: Wiley-Blackwell. * Williams, Aiden (2019).
Sedimentology and Stratigraphy
' (1st ed.). Forest Hills, NY: Callisto Reference.


External links

* The current version of the International Chronostratigraphic Chart can be found a
stratigraphy.org/chart
* Interactive version of the International Chronostratigraphic Chart is found a
stratigraphy.org/timescale
* A list of current Global Boundary Stratotype and Section Points is found a
stratigraphy.org/gssps



GSA: Geologic Time Scale



GeoWhen Database



SeeGrid: Geological Time Systems
Information model for the geologic time scale
Exploring Time
from Planck Time to the lifespan of the universe
Episodes
Gradstein, Felix M. et al. (2004) ''A new Geologic Time Scale, with special reference to Precambrian and Neogene'', Episodes, Vol. 27, no. 2 June 2004 (pdf) * Lane, Alfred C, and Marble, John Putman 1937
Report of the Committee on the measurement of geologic time



Deep Time – A History of the Earth : Interactive InfographicGeology Buzz: Geologic Time Scale
{{Authority control + Evolution-related timelines Geochronology Timescale Articles which contain graphical timelines International Commission on Stratigraphy geologic time scale of Earth