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Emperor at home, king abroad was a system of conducting relations between states within the Chinese cultural sphere. Rulers of lesser regimes would adopt the title of ''
emperor An emperor (from la, imperator, via fro, empereor) is a monarch, and usually the sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. Empress, the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife ( empress consort), mother (emp ...
'' (皇帝; or other equivalents) and/or other imperial titles domestically, and adopt the title of ''
king King is the title given to a male monarch in a variety of contexts. The female equivalent is queen, which title is also given to the consort of a king. *In the context of prehistory, antiquity and contemporary indigenous peoples, the t ...
'' (王; or other equivalents) when dealing with the dominant Chinese regime. Instead of using the styles '' Imperial Majesty'' and ''
Majesty Majesty (abbreviated HM for His Majesty or Her Majesty, oral address Your Majesty; from the Latin ''maiestas'', meaning "greatness") is used as a manner of address by many monarchs, usually kings or queens. Where used, the style outranks the ...
'' (陛下), rulers of lesser realms were styled as ''
Highness Highness (abbreviation HH, oral address Your Highness) is a formal style used to address (in second person) or refer to (in third person) certain members of a reigning or formerly reigning dynasty. It is typically used with a possessive adj ...
'' (殿下). This system was applicable to Japan, Korea and Vietnam, as well as less powerful Chinese states, among others. As China was a hegemonic power in East Asia for a large part of history, surrounding states were compelled to pay tribute to Chinese emperors in exchange for peace and political legitimacy. In this system, lesser regimes accepted the suzerainty of the dominant Chinese power and acknowledged the Chinese emperor as their nominal overlord. Since Chinese emperors claimed to be the
Son of Heaven Son of Heaven, or ''Tianzi'' (), was the sacred monarchical title of the Chinese sovereign. It originated with the Zhou dynasty and was founded on the political and spiritual doctrine of the Mandate of Heaven. Since the Qin dynasty, the secula ...
and held supremacy over
all under Heaven ''Tianxia'' (), literally meaning "(all) under Heaven", is a Chinese term for a historical Chinese cultural concept that denoted either the entire geographical world or the metaphysical realm of mortals, and later became associated with polit ...
, rulers of lesser regimes were to use titles subordinate to ''emperor''. The same doctrine also maintained that there could only be one emperor at any given time.


Korea

In 933, King Taejo of Goryeo was conferred the title of ''King of Goryeo'' (高麗國王) by the
Emperor Mingzong of Later Tang Li Siyuan (李嗣源, later changed to Li Dan (李亶)) (10 October 867 – 15 December 933), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Mingzong of Later Tang (後唐明宗), was the second emperor of the Later Tang dynasty of China, reignin ...
. Prior to its capitulation to the
Yuan dynasty The Yuan dynasty (), officially the Great Yuan (; xng, , , literally "Great Yuan State"), was a Mongol-led imperial dynasty of China and a successor state to the Mongol Empire after its division. It was established by Kublai, the fift ...
, imperial designations and terminology were widely used by the
Goryeo dynasty Goryeo (; ) was a Korean kingdom founded in 918, during a time of national division called the Later Three Kingdoms period, that unified and ruled the Korean Peninsula until 1392. Goryeo achieved what has been called a "true national unificat ...
domestically. Its rulers claimed to be the ''
Son of Heaven Son of Heaven, or ''Tianzi'' (), was the sacred monarchical title of the Chinese sovereign. It originated with the Zhou dynasty and was founded on the political and spiritual doctrine of the Mandate of Heaven. Since the Qin dynasty, the secula ...
'', as did Chinese emperors. King Gyeongsun of Silla addressed King Taejo of Goryeo as the ''Son of Heaven'' when he surrendered. Even though the
Song dynasty The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the rest ...
, the
Liao dynasty The Liao dynasty (; Khitan: ''Mos Jælud''; ), also known as the Khitan Empire (Khitan: ''Mos diau-d kitai huldʒi gur''), officially the Great Liao (), was an imperial dynasty of China that existed between 916 and 1125, ruled by the Yelü ...
and the Jin dynasty were well-informed of Goryeo's use of imperial titles, all three
Chinese dynasties Dynasties in Chinese history, or Chinese dynasties, were hereditary monarchical regimes that ruled over China during much of its history. From the legendary inauguration of dynastic rule by Yu the Great circa 2070 BC to the abdication of the ...
tolerated such practice. The Goryeo dynasty later became a semi-autonomous region of the Yuan dynasty, bringing an end to its domestic imperial system. Its rulers bore the title ''king'' and were prohibited from having
temple name Temple names are posthumous titles accorded to monarchs of the Sinosphere for the purpose of ancestor worship. The practice of honoring monarchs with temple names began during the Shang dynasty in China and had since been adopted by other dyna ...
s which were reserved specifically for the Yuan emperors. In 1356, King Gongmin of Goryeo declared independence from the Yuan dynasty. In 1392, King Taejo of Joseon overthrew the Goryeo dynasty and founded the
Joseon dynasty Joseon (; ; Middle Korean: 됴ᇢ〯션〮 Dyǒw syéon or 됴ᇢ〯션〯 Dyǒw syěon), officially the Great Joseon (; ), was the last dynastic kingdom of Korea, lasting just over 500 years. It was founded by Yi Seong-gye in July 1392 and ...
. He was bestowed the title ''King of Joseon'' (朝鮮國王) by the Hongwu Emperor of the
Ming dynasty The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last orthodox dynasty of China ruled by the Han peo ...
. Both domestically and externally, Joseon monarchs held the title of ''king'', unlike the domestic claim of imperial titles before Goryeo's submission to the Yuan dynasty.


Vietnam

In 544, Lý Bôn established the
Early Lý dynasty The Early Lý dynasty ( vi, nhà Tiền Lý; Hán Nôm: ), also called the Former Lý dynasty or Anterior Lý dynasty, was a dynasty which ruled Vietnam from AD 544 to 602. Its founder Lý Bí assumed the title of "Southern Emperor" ('). ...
and proclaimed himself the ''Emperor of Nam Việt'' (南越帝). In 968, Đinh Bộ Lĩnh founded the
Đinh dynasty Dinh is a Vietnamese surname. In Vietnam, the surname is spelled Đinh or Đình but ''Đình'' is very rare in Vietnamese. Notable people * Andy Dinh, Team SoloMid owner, player * Dan Dinh, ''League of Legends '' player, brother of Andy Dinh * ...
and declared himself as ''emperor'', abolishing the old title of '' Jinghaijun
Jiedushi The ''jiedushi'' (), or jiedu, was a title for regional military governors in China which was established in the Tang dynasty and abolished in the Yuan dynasty. The post of ''jiedushi'' has been translated as "military commissioner", " legate" ...
'' (靜海軍節度使), a title of Chinese regional military commander. The
Emperor Taizu of Song Emperor Taizu of Song (21 March 927 – 14 November 976), personal name Zhao Kuangyin, courtesy name Yuanlang, was the founder and first emperor of the Song dynasty of China. He reigned from 960 until his death in 976. Formerly a distingu ...
later bestowed the title ''King of Jiaozhi Prefecture'' to Đinh Bộ Lĩnh. In 986, Lê Hoàn was bestowed the title of ''Jinghaijun Jiedushi'' when the emissary of the Song dynasty visited. In 988, Lê Hoàn was promoted to ''Proxy
Grand Commandant Grand Commandant () is a title referring to the supreme military commander in ancient China, Vietnam and the Korean Peninsula. The earliest recording is on the Master Lü's Spring and Autumn Annals in 205 BC. During the Western Han, the position w ...
'' (檢校太尉); in 993 to ''Prince of Jiaozhi'' (交趾郡王); and finally in 997 his title was promoted to the ''King of Nanping'' (南平王). In 1010,
Lý Thái Tổ Lý Thái Tổ ( vi-hantu, , 8 March 974 – 31 March 1028), personal name Lý Công Uẩn, temple name Thái Tổ, was a Vietnamese emperor, the founder of the Lý dynasty of Vietnam and the 6th ruler of Đại Việt; he reigned from 1009 ...
established the
Lý dynasty The Lý dynasty ( vi, Nhà Lý, , chữ Nôm: 茹李, chữ Hán: 李朝, Hán Việt: ''Lý triều'') was a Vietnamese dynasty that existed from 1009 to 1225. It was established by Lý Công Uẩn when he overthrew the Early Lê dynasty and ...
and was granted the title ''Prince of Jiaozhi'' by the
Emperor Zhenzong of Song Emperor Zhenzong of Song (23 December 968 – 23 March 1022), personal name Zhao Heng, was the third emperor of the Song dynasty of China. He reigned from 997 to his death in 1022. His personal name was originally Zhao Dechang, but was change ...
. In 1174,
Lý Anh Tông Emperor Lý Anh Tông (1136 – 14 August 1175) of Đại Việt (literally Great Viet), was the sixth ruler of the later Lý dynasty, from 1138 until his death in 1175. Since Lý Anh Tông, given name Lý Thiên Tộ ( 李 天 祚), was chos ...
was bestowed the title ''King of Annam'' (安南國王); "Annam", meaning "the Pacified South", was the name of Vietnam during Chinese rule. Domestically, rulers of the Lý dynasty maintained the use of the title ''emperor''. Upon proclaiming the Later Lê dynasty, Lê Thái Tổ claimed kingship with the title ''Đại Vương'' (大王). It was not until the reign of
Lê Thánh Tông Lê Thánh Tông (黎聖宗; 25 August 1442 – 3 March 1497), personal name Lê Hạo, temple name Thánh Tông, courtesy name Tư Thành, was an emperor of Đại Việt, reigning from 1460 to 1497, the fifth and the longest-reigning empe ...
did Vietnamese rulers reclaimed imperial titles. The system continued to be used until the end of the dynasty itself, as all rulers claimed imperial status domestically and reverted to royal rank when dealing with China. The Gia Long Emperor of the
Nguyễn dynasty The Nguyễn dynasty (chữ Nôm: 茹阮, vi, Nhà Nguyễn; chữ Hán: 阮朝, vi, Nguyễn triều) was the last Vietnamese dynasty, which ruled the unified Vietnamese state largely independently from 1802 to 1883. During its existence, t ...
was conferred the title ''King of Việt Nam'' (越南國王) by the
Jiaqing Emperor The Jiaqing Emperor (13 November 1760 – 2 September 1820), also known by his temple name Emperor Renzong of Qing, born Yongyan, was the sixth emperor of the Manchu-led Qing dynasty, and the fifth Qing emperor to rule over China proper, fro ...
of the
Qing dynasty The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-speak ...
. While the Nguyễn dynasty accepted Chinese suzerainty and adopted the title of ''king'' when dealing with the Qing dynasty, it entered into foreign relations with other states as ''Emperor of Đại Việt Nam'' (大越南皇帝) and later as ''Emperor of Đại Nam'' (大南皇帝). Domestically, Nguyễn monarchs also used the title ''emperor'' and referred to its realm as the "southern dynasty" (in relation to the Qing dynasty, the "northern dynasty"), implying an equal status with China.


Japan

Chinese emperors originally referred to Japanese rulers as the ''King of Wa'' (倭王), while they were called ''kimi'' or ''ōkimi'' in Japan. Some of the rulers, notably the
five kings of Wa The were kings of ancient Japan who sent envoys to China during the 5th century to strengthen the legitimacy of their claims to power by gaining the recognition of the Chinese emperor. Details about them are unknown. According to written records in ...
, accepted Chinese suzerainty. During the
Sui dynasty The Sui dynasty (, ) was a short-lived imperial dynasty of China that lasted from 581 to 618. The Sui unified the Northern and Southern dynasties, thus ending the long period of division following the fall of the Western Jin dynasty, and la ...
, the Japanese diplomat
Ono no Imoko was a Japanese politician and diplomat in the late 6th and early 7th century, during the Asuka period. Ono was appointed by Empress Suiko as an official envoy ( Kenzuishi) to the Sui court in 607 (Imperial embassies to China), and he deliver ...
delivered a letter by
Prince Shōtoku , also known as or , was a semi-legendary regent and a politician of the Asuka period in Japan who served under Empress Suiko. He was the son of Emperor Yōmei and his consort, Princess Anahobe no Hashihito, who was also Yōmei's younger half ...
to the
Emperor Yang of Sui Emperor Yang of Sui (隋煬帝, 569 – 11 April 618), personal name Yang Guang (), alternative name Ying (), Xianbei name Amo (), also known as Emperor Ming of Sui () during the brief reign of his grandson Yang Tong, was the second emperor o ...
which claimed the
Empress Suiko (554 – 15 April 628) was the 33rd monarch of Japan,Imperial Household Agency (''Kunaichō'') 推古天皇 (33)/ref> according to the traditional order of succession. Suiko reigned from 593 until her death in 628. In the history of Japan, ...
as "the Son of Heaven where the sun rises", implying an equal status between the Japanese and Chinese monarchs. The Emperor Yang of Sui was angered by such a claim. Since then, the
Emperor of Japan The Emperor of Japan is the monarch and the head of the Imperial Family of Japan. Under the Constitution of Japan, he is defined as the symbol of the Japanese state and the unity of the Japanese people, and his position is derived from "the wi ...
has started to adopt the imperial title of ''tennō'' (天皇) both domestically and externally, and the title ''king'' (國王) was sometimes used for trade with China by
shogun , officially , was the title of the military dictators of Japan during most of the period spanning from 1185 to 1868. Nominally appointed by the Emperor, shoguns were usually the de facto rulers of the country, though during part of the Kamakura ...
s, who held ''de facto'' power in Japan. China did not officially allow Japanese emperors to use the title ''tennō'', although it did little to compel the Japanese rulers into reverting to lesser titles. During the
Tang dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingd ...
, Japanese rulers were conferred the title ''King of Japan'' (日本國王). In 894, Japan stopped sending envoys to the Tang dynasty. During the
Yuan dynasty The Yuan dynasty (), officially the Great Yuan (; xng, , , literally "Great Yuan State"), was a Mongol-led imperial dynasty of China and a successor state to the Mongol Empire after its division. It was established by Kublai, the fift ...
, the Emperor Shizu of Yuan demanded the submission of the ''King of Japan'', referring to the Japanese emperor. Japan rejected this demand, which resulted in the Yuan invasions of Japan. During the
Nanboku-chō period The Nanboku-chō period (南北朝時代, ''Nanboku-chō jidai'', "North and South court period", also known as the Northern and Southern Courts period), spanning from 1336 to 1392, was a period that occurred during the formative years of the Mur ...
of Japan, Prince Kaneyoshi refused to accept the title of ''king'' granted by China, and killed seven Chinese ambassadors in retaliation. The shogun
Ashikaga Yoshimitsu was the third ''shōgun'' of the Ashikaga shogunate, ruling from 1368 to 1394 during the Muromachi period of Japan. Yoshimitsu was Ashikaga Yoshiakira's third son but the oldest son to survive, his childhood name being Haruō (). Yoshimitsu was ...
accepted the title ''King of Japan'' bestowed by the Yongle Emperor due to his desire to establish trade relations with the
Ming dynasty The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last orthodox dynasty of China ruled by the Han peo ...
.The Yamato Dynasty: The Secret History of Japan's Imperial Family; By Sterling Seagrave, Peggy Seagrave; Broadway Books, 2001; Page 23; https://books.google.com/books?id=Se8UzqKr2x8C&lpg=PA23&pg=PA23#v=onepage&q&f=false During the rule of the
Tokugawa shogunate The Tokugawa shogunate (, Japanese 徳川幕府 ''Tokugawa bakufu''), also known as the , was the military government of Japan during the Edo period from 1603 to 1868. Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric. (2005)"''Tokugawa-jidai''"in ''Japan Encyclopedia' ...
,
Tokugawa Hidetada was the second ''shōgun'' of the Tokugawa dynasty, who ruled from 1605 until his abdication in 1623. He was the third son of Tokugawa Ieyasu, the first ''shōgun'' of the Tokugawa shogunate. Early life (1579–1593) Tokugawa Hidetada was bo ...
changed the title of ''king'' to ''
taikun Actually spelled "tycoon" during its brief usage in English language diplomatic notes in the 1860s, is an archaic Japanese term of respect derived from Chinese '' I Ching'', which once referred to an independent ruler who did not have an imp ...
'' (大君), as a sign of respect to the Japanese emperor. Thereafter,
Tokugawa Ienobu (June 11, 1662 – November 12, 1712) was the sixth ''shōgun'' of the Tokugawa dynasty of Japan. He was the eldest son of Tokugawa Tsunashige, thus making him the nephew of Tokugawa Ietsuna and Tokugawa Tsunayoshi, the grandson of Tokugawa Ie ...
switched the title back to ''king'', only to be changed once again to ''taikun'' by
Tokugawa Yoshimune was the eighth ''shōgun'' of the Tokugawa shogunate of Japan, ruling from 1716 until his abdication in 1745. He was the son of Tokugawa Mitsusada, the grandson of Tokugawa Yorinobu, and the great-grandson of Tokugawa Ieyasu. Lineage Yoshimun ...
.


See also

*
East Asian cultural sphere The East Asian cultural sphere, also known as the Sinosphere, the Sinic world, the Sinitic world, the Chinese cultural sphere, the Chinese character sphere encompasses multiple countries in East Asia and Southeast Asia that were historically ...
*
Foreign relations of imperial China : ''For the later history after 1800 see History of foreign relations of China.'' The foreign relations of Imperial China from the Qin dynasty until the Qing dynasty encompassed many situations as the fortunes of dynasties rose and fell. Chinese cu ...
*
Hua–Yi distinction The distinction between ''Huá'' and ''Yí'' ( zh, t=, p=Huá Yí zhī biàn), also known as Sino–barbarian dichotomy, is a historical Chinese concept that differentiated a culturally defined "China" (called Huá, Huaxia , or Xià ) from cultu ...
*
King in Prussia King ''in'' Prussia ( German: ''König in Preußen'') was a title used by the Prussian kings (also in personal union Electors of Brandenburg) from 1701 to 1772. Subsequently, they used the title King ''of'' Prussia (''König von Preußen''). ...
*
List of tributary states of China This is a list of states that paid tribute to the Central Plain dynasties of China under the tributary system. It encompassed states in Europe, East Asia, South Asia, Central Asia and Southeast Asia. List of tributaries In the 5th century, a stat ...
* Little China (ideology) * '' Pax Sinica'' *
Sinicization Sinicization, sinofication, sinification, or sinonization (from the prefix , 'Chinese, relating to China') is the process by which non-Chinese societies come under the influence of Chinese culture, particularly the language, societal norms, cul ...
*
Sinocentrism Sinocentrism refers to the worldview that China is the cultural, political, or economic center of the world. It may be considered analogous to Eurocentrism. Overview and context Depending on the historical context, Sinocentrism can refer to ...
*
Tributary system of China The tributary system of China (), or Cefeng system () was a network of loose international relations focused on China which facilitated trade and foreign relations by acknowledging China's predominant role in East Asia. It involved multiple relati ...
*
Problem of two emperors The problem of two emperors or two-emperors problem (deriving from the German term ''Zweikaiserproblem'')The term was introduced in the first major treatise on the issue, by W. Ohnsorge, cf. . is the historiographical term for the historical con ...
*
Universal monarchy A universal monarchy is a concept and political situation where one monarchy is deemed to have either sole rule over everywhere (or at least the predominant part of a geopolitical area or areas) or to have a special supremacy over all other sta ...


References

{{reflist History of East Asia Foreign relations of Imperial China China–Japan relations China–Korea relations China–Vietnam relations