Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie

Emmanuel Bernard Le Roy Ladurie (, born 19 July 1929) is a French historian whose work is mainly focused upon Languedoc in the ''Ancien Régime'', particularly the history of the peasantry. One of the leading historians of France, Le Roy Ladurie has been called the "standard-bearer" of the third generation of the ''Annales'' school and the "rock star of the medievalists", noted for his work in social history.Huges-Warrington, Marnie, ''Fifty Key Thinkers on History'', London: Routledge, 2000 page 194.

Early life and career

Le Roy Ladurie was born in Les Moutiers-en-Cinglais, Calvados. His father was Jacques Le Roy Ladurie,who would become minister of Agriculture for Marshal Philippe Pétain and subsequently a member of the French resistance after breaking with the Vichy regime. Le Roy Ladurie described his childhood in Normandy growing up on his family estate in the countryside as intensely Catholic and royalist in politics.
The Le Roy Ladurie family were originally the aristocratic de Roy Laduries, descended from a Catholic priest who fell in love with one of his parishioners, dropped out of the priesthood to marry her and was then ennobled by the Crown; the family dropped the aristocratic ''de'' from their surname at the time of the French Revolution. Le Roy Ladurie's grandfather was a French Army officer of Catholic royalist views who was dishonorably discharged from the Army in 1902 for refusing orders from the anti-clerical government to close Catholic schools. Later, the former Captain Le Roy Ladurie returned to rural Normandy, was elected mayor of Villeray and was active in organising a union for rural workers.

During his childhood, Le Roy Ladurie's hero was Marshal Pétain. Marshal Pétain's fall from grace – from the hero of Verdun and one of France's most loved men to the reviled collaborator and one of France's most hated men, sentenced to death for high treason for his collaboration with Germany – had a major influence on Le Roy Ladurie's sense of history. Speaking of the rise and fall of Marshal Pétain from hero to traitor as an example of the vicissitudes of history, Le Roy Ladurie in a 1998 interview stated: "I have remained fascinated since then with what we call decline and fall. France is full of people who became very important, then became nothing. My fascination is probably due to the fact that my own family was once important and then became zero. There was a contrast between my own career and the feelings in my family." Because his father had been a minister in the Vichy government, his son grew up in an atmosphere of family shame and disgrace. The historian was educated in Caen at the Collège Saint-Joseph, in Paris at the Lycée Henri-IV and in Sceaux at the Lycée Lakanal. He was awarded an '' agrégation'' in history after studying at the École Normale Supérieure and a ''doctorat ès lettres'' from the University of Paris. Le Roy Ladurie has taught at the Lycée de Montpellier, the University of Montpellier, the École Pratique des Haute Études in Paris, the University of Paris and at the Collège de France, where he occupied from 1973 to 1999 the chair of History of Modern Civilization and became emeritus professor.

Le Roy Ladurie was a member of the French Communist Party (PCF) between 1945 and 1956. His devoutly Catholic parents had expected him to become a Catholic priest and were scandalized that their son should become an ardent Communist and atheist. The Great Depression of the 1930s together with France's defeat in 1940 at the hands of Germany had caused many people in France to lose faith in both capitalism and liberal democracy. The leading role played by the French Communists in the Resistance during the German occupation and the willingness of many of the traditional French elites to support the Vichy regime together with the apparent success achieved by the Soviet regime's planned economy and its "scientific socialism" led Le Roy Ladurie, like many other people of his generation in France, to embrace Communism as the best hope for humanity.Christofferson, Michael Scott ''French Intellectuals Against the Left: The Antitotalitarian Moment of the 1970s'', Oxford: Berghahn Books, 2004 page 30. The PCF proudly billed themselves as the "party of 75,000 shot"-a reference to the claim that the Germans had shot 75,000 French Communists between 1941 and 1944 (the true figure was actually 10,000 French Communists executed by the Germans between 1941 and 1944); nevertheless the PCF had acquired tremendous prestige in 1940s France as a result of its role in the Resistance. The German occupation had been a profoundly traumatic experience for the French, not the least because unlike World War I, in which the ''Union sacrée'' proclaimed by Raymond Poincaré in 1914 had united the left and the right against the common German enemy, World War II had seen a civil war in France. The Resistance had fought not only the Germans, but also the police, gendarmes and the much feared ''Milice'' of the Vichy regime. The ''Milice'' were a collection of French fascists, gangsters and assorted adventurers used by the Vichy regime to hunt down and murder ''résistants'', who in their turn assassinated members of the ''Milice''. Given this background, in which many young French people had seen at first-hand the pretty streets, avenues and squares of French cities, towns and villages sullied by acts of outrageous cruelty and violence, Le Roy Ladurie described his generation as a scarred one, saying: "It was dangerous for young people during the war. If we are subjected to violence, we will in turn be violent towards others. It is like someone who is sodomised and then sodomises others." Le Roy Ladurie explained that he became a Communist as a reaction to his war-time experiences.

When the Hungarian writer Arthur Koestler's 1940 novel ''Darkness at Noon'' was translated into French in 1949, Le Roy Ladurie saw it as confirming the greatness of Stalinism instead of the condemnation that Koestler had intended. Koestler's novel concerned a prominent Soviet Communist and Old Bolshevik named Rubashov who was arrested and charged with crimes against the Soviet Union that he did not commit, but which he willingly confessed to in a show trial after hearing an appeal to Party discipline. The character of Rubashov is generally believed to be modeled by Koestler on Nikolai Bukharin, a prominent Old Bolshevik and the leader of the "rightist" (i.e. moderate) faction in the Communist Party who was shot in 1938 after a show trial in Moscow which Bukharin confessed to a fantastic array of bizarre and improbable charges such as being an agent of foreign powers, sabotage, "wrecking", and working with Leon Trotsky from his exile in Mexico City and the "White Guard" leaders in Paris to overthrow Stalin. Bukharin's real crime had been to oppose Stalin in the post-Lenin succession struggle in the 1920s and to advocate continuing the New Economic Policy - which allocated control of the "commanding heights" of the Soviet economy to the state while allowing free enterprise in the rest of the economy - as a viable model for the future. It was not until 1928 when Stalin brought in the First Five Year Plan that full socialism arrived in the Soviet Union, a policy choice that Bukharin had opposed. The image of the Bukharin-like character Rubashov confessing to crimes that he did not commit in order to uphold the greatness of Communism in ''Darkness At Noon'' caused a sensation at the time, but the truth was rather more brutal and sordid: Bukharin had been psychologically "broken" after months of torture by the NKVD, and had been reduced to such a state that he was willing to "confess" to anything. Le Roy Ladurie wrote in a 1949 essay about ''Darkness At Noon'' that: "Rubashov was right to sacrifice his life and especially his revolutionary honor so that the best of all possible regimes could be established one day". Le Roy Ladurie was to subsequently admit that he had misunderstood the message of ''Darkness At Noon''. At the height of the Cold War in the early 1950s, Le Roy Ladurie described the atmosphere inside the Party as "''une intensité liturgique''".Hazareesingh, Sudhir ''Intellectuals and the French Communist Party: Disillusion and Decline'', Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991 page 139.

In 1955, Le Roy Ladurie married Madeleine Pupponi with whom he had one son and one daughter.Carroll, Stuart "Le Roy Ladurie, Emmanuel" pages 711-712 from ''The Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing'', Volume 1, edited by Kelly Boyd, London: Fitzroy Dearborn, 1999 page 712. Le Roy Ladurie left the PCF after doubts caused by the 1956 Hungarian Revolution became too much for him. Le Roy Ladurie was later to write that the sight of Soviet tanks crushing the ordinary people of Hungary in 1956 who were merely demanding basic human rights led him to abandon his optimism of the late 1940s that the Soviet Union represented the best hope of humanity and instead led him to the conclusion that communism was an inhumane, totalitarian ideology that oppressed people in the Soviet Union, Hungary and elsewhere. Le Roy Ladurie's break with the PCF did not mean a break with the left: he joined the Socialist Party, running as a Socialist candidate in Montpellier in 1957, winning 2.5% of the vote. In 1963, a disillusioned Le Roy Ladurie left the Socialists.

Le Roy Ladurie has often written for ''Le Nouvel Observateur'', '' L'Express,'' and ''Le Monde'' newspapers, and appeared on French television (in France, historians have far more social prestige than they do in the English-speaking world; to be a successful historian in France is to be something of a celebrity).

Le Roy Ladurie was a member of both the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1974) and the American Philosophical Society (1979).

''Les paysans de Languedoc''

Le Roy Ladurie first attracted attention with his doctoral thesis, ''Les paysans de Languedoc'', which was published as a book in 1966 and translated into English as ''The Peasants of Languedoc'' in 1974.Huges-Warrington, Marnie, ''Fifty Key Thinkers on History'', London: Routledge, 2000 page 195. In this study of the peasantry of Languedoc over several centuries, Le Roy Ladurie employed a huge range of quantitative information such as tithe records, wage books, tax receipts, rent receipts and profit records, together with the theories of such thinkers as Ernest Labrousse, Michel Foucault, David Ricardo, Fernand Braudel, Claude Lévi-Strauss, Thomas Malthus, François Simiand, Sigmund Freud and Max Weber, to contend that the history of Languedoc was "''l'histoire immobile''." He argued that the history of Languedoc was marked by waves of growth and decline that in essence changed very little over the passage of time. Le Roy Ladurie acknowledged his debt to Braudel, who had argued that it was climate and geography that shaped the course of history, but felt that Braudel had gone too far in regarding these factors as causal agents in history. Instead, Le Roy Ladurie felt that culture and economics were just as important as the nature of the land and the weather. Influenced by the work of his mentor Fernand Braudel, Le Roy Ladurie set out to write a ''histoire totale'' (total history) of Languedoc from the 15th to the 18th centuries that would integrate political, cultural, economic, social history and environmental history.

Le Roy Ladurie proposed that the determining feature of life in Languedoc was the culture of the people who lived there, arguing that the people of Languedoc could not break the cycles of advance and decline not so much because of technological factors, but because of the culture that prevented them from developing more progressive technology and farming practices. In ''Les paysans de Languedoc'', Le Roy Ladurie went against the prevailing Marxist view that dominated French historiography at the time that the history of early modern France from the 15th century to the 18th century was the ever-accelerating accumulation of property and wealthy by capitalists. Instead, Le Roy Ladurie contended that in Languedoc there had been cycles of economic advance and decline from the 15th to the 18th centuries. According to Le Roy Ladurie, there were several cycles, namely:
*"the low water mark" in the 15th century when French society was still recovering from the massive death toll caused by the Black Death of the 14th century which had wiped out much of the population of France. As a consequence, there was social pressure on the survivors to have as many children as possible to repopulate France. With a growing population in the late 14th and 15th centuries, forests were cut down to make room for farms, while poorer land that had been neglected was reclaimed for the growing number of Languedoc peasants. The growing also meant that property was constantly being subdivided while wages declined.
*The first phase in turn led to the second phase, the "advance" of growing prosperity that lasted until 1530. After 1530, Le Roy Ladurie maintained that the "stubborn inelasticity" of farming practices in Languedoc combined with a growing population led to a period of economic decline that lasted for the rest of the 16th century. Peasants planted more grain, but owing to a combination of cultural conservatism, a shortage of capital and a refusal to innovate, could not increase the productivity of the land to match the increasing population. The growing numbers of mouths to feed together with the "stubborn inelasticity" of Languedoc farming methods led a period of social misery with more and more struggling to survive on less and less. Many peasants moved to other provinces in a search of a better life while those that remained in Languedoc tended to get married at a later age in order to limit family size. In the 16th century, ordinary people in Languedoc were all too aware that they were living in very tough times, but Le Roy Ladurie wrote that they were "preoccupied to the point of self-immolation" with religious issues. The Reformation had badly divided ordinary people, and during the French Wars of Religion, Protestants and Catholics fought one another over the social domination of Languedoc society. Between 1562 and 1598, a series of civil wars took place in France between Catholics and Huguenots to determine whether France would be a Catholic or Calvinist nation: Frenchmen went about killing each other with much passion and fury, both sides being convinced that their faith was the one true faith and that France's salvation was literally in the balance. The Reformed Church had made great gains in the south of France, and as a result Languedoc, like many provinces in the south was the scene of especially vicious fighting during the Wars of Religion. Le Roy Ladurie argued that it was the devastating effect of the civil wars in France that gave birth to both anti-tax revolts as the peasants objected to the increased taxes to which the series of civil wars gave rise and a widespread belief in witchcraft, which held out the promise of a more just society. Le Roy Ladurie wrote that witchcraft represented the lingering survival of the beliefs of the ancient pagan religion before the conversion of Languedoc to Christianity. The ancient Celts had thrown valuable objects into pools and streams to appease the powerful water spirits that were believed to live there while, later, the Romans had imported the belief in Dryads (woodland nymphs) and Naiads (water nymphs).Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie « Naïades et dryades: Mythe de paysan français au 16ème siècle », in études françaises du 16ème siècles, numéro 9, automne 1964 pg 14. Despite becoming nominally Christian, the people of Languedoc continued to do this for centuries. Peasant folklore had it that certain favored young women could be invited to join the sisterhood of the Naiads and that if they accepted the invitation by diving naked into the magical waters, they would be transformed into a sensuous Naiad who would be forever young. Le Roy Ladurie suggested that these folktales about young women turning into Dryads or Naiads reflected both female fantasies of escape from the patriarchal society of 16th century Languedoc and a way for the peasants to "explain away" young women who had run away. Given the prevalence of such beliefs, many peasants took it for granted that certain women were witches who had magical powers and could talk to the spirits of the forest and the waters. During the period of the Wars of Religion, many ordinary people repulsed in equal measure by the brutal fanaticism of the Catholics and the Huguenots turned to these women, as a rejection both of the bloody mayhem caused by the Wars and of the existing social order which Christianity, whenever it be Protestant or Catholic, upheld. Le Roy Ladurie wrote that the appeal of witchcraft with its glorification of the sensuous pleasures of the human body held out the promise of a "social inversion", which it failed to deliver upon. In studying the cultural and religious history of Languedoc, Le Roy Ladurie was very different from many other ''Annales'' historians who usually ignored these aspects of history. Le Roy Ladurie wrote that by the end of the 16th century, the "Malthusian curse" had fallen on Languedoc as the substantial population growth was not matched by increased productivity of the land to provide enough food for all the extra mouths.
*Starting in 1600, a third phase that Le Roy Ladurie called "maturity" began. In the 17th century, the productivity of the land in Languedoc finally caught up with the growth in the population. Contrary to the claims of Marxist historians, Le Roy Ladurie argued that there was little accumulation of wealth, as continuing agrarian conservatism and a major increase in what Le Roy Ladurie called "parasitic phenomena" both retarded efforts to build up capital.Huges-Warrington, Marnie, ''Fifty Key Thinkers on History'', London: Routledge, 2000 page 196. The "parasitic phenomena" were the increasing taxes levied by the French Crown combined with increased tithes demanded by the Catholic Church and increased rents by landlords. Many Languedoc peasants went deeply into debt in an effort to pay all of these. The adverse climate of the 17th century, in which the Little Ice Age was at its height, together with the fact that France was constantly at war in the 17th century further contributed to the increasing misery of the peasantry of Languedoc.
*In the second half of the 17th century was what Le Roy Ladurie called the fourth phase of "the long period of recession". As the peasants struggled to pay their loans, taxes, tithes and rents, the economy of Languedoc went into a period of steep decline. This period of rising unemployment and poverty together with poor hygiene, unsanitary living conditions, emigration to other provinces of France, late marriages and a rise in birth control – as many men started to use primitive condoms – all led to a dramatic decline in the population of Languedoc. During this period, many wealthier families were able to embark upon land consolidation as they were able to buy the land of less successful families on the cheap.

At the beginning of the 18th century, Languedoc society was, in Le Roy Ladurie's opinion, not far from where it had been two centuries earlier, thus making this entire period one of "''l'historie immobile''". Le Roy Ladurie saw this as the result of the inability of the farmers of Languedoc to increase the productivity of the land, writing:

"Some have spoken of a ''natural'' ceiling on productive resources. But 'nature' in this case is actually culture; it is the customs, the way of life, the mentality of the people; it is a whole formed by technical knowledge and a system of values, by the means employed and the ends pursued".

Le Roy Ladurie argued that, as a result, the unwillingness of the peasants of Languedoc to engage in technologically innovative farming techniques to increase the productivity of the land (as was happening during the same period in England) was the result of the "lack of the conscience, the culture, the morals, the politics, the education, the reformist spirit, and the unfettered longing for success" that characterized the entire culture of Languedoc during these centuries. However, Le Roy Ladurie pointed out that what he had traced was not a cycle in the proper sense as Languedoc did not return in the 18th century to where it had been in the 15th. Even though this was overall a period of economic stagnation, Le Roy Ladurie noted that were "islands" of growth and change in Languedoc. Some of the more enterprising farmers started to grow silk and vines, the latter laying the foundations of the Languedoc wine industry. Others switched over to cloth manufacture. In conclusion, Le Roy Ladurie argued that these economic changes together with the beginning of elementary schools in which the sons of farmers acquired some literacy, the decline of religious fanaticism and a "a general improvement in behavior" all come together to bring about the "economic takeoff" of the 18th century, when the cycles of decline and advance were finally broken.

In Le Roy Ladurie's view, there were "structures" comprising long-term and slowly changing material and mental patterns which underlined the more dramatic and, in his opinion, less important "''conjoncture''" of trends and events, upon which historians have traditionally focused. Le Roy Ladurie wrote that what he was exploring in ''Les paysans de Languedoc'' was the relationship between the ''vie culturelle'' that was the "superstructure" of beliefs, politics and thought as it was changed slowly by the ''vie matérielle'' of the environment and geography that was the "base" on which the superstructure rested. Like Braudel, Le Roy Ladurie believes that it is the history of the "structures" that really mattered, but unlike Braudel, Le Roy Ladurie has expressed an interest in biography and the ''histoire événementielle'' (history of events), which Braudel dismissed as irrelevant. However, Le Roy Ladurie stated that while studying ''histoire événementielle'' is interesting, it is the "structures" of French society that explain the course of French history.

Montaillou

Le Roy Ladurie's best-known work is '' Montaillou, village occitan de 1294 à 1324'' (1975), a study of the village of Montaillou in the region of Languedoc in the south of France during the age of the Cathar heresy.Huges-Warrington, Marnie, ''Fifty Key Thinkers on History'', London: Routledge, 2000 page 197. ''Montaillou'' was a bestseller in both France and after its translation into English in the United States and Great Britain, and remains Le Roy Ladurie's most popular book by far. As a result of the book, the previously little-known village of Montaillou became a popular tourist destination.

In ''Montaillou'', Le Roy Ladurie used the records of the Inquisition of Jacques Fournier, Bishop of Pamiers, to develop a multi-layered study of life in a small French village over the course of several years. Le Roy Ladurie used the records of interrogations conducted by Fournier to offer a picture of both the material and mental worlds of the inhabitants of Montaillou. ''Montaillou'' was much praised by reviewers in both France and the English-speaking world for its vivid, atmospheric recreation of the everyday life of the people of Montaillou in the early 14th century. Many critics have noted that for Le Roy Ladurie, the village priest Father Pierre Clergue, an ardent womanizer whose vow of celibacy meant nothing and who apparently slept with most of the women of Montaillou seemed to be something of a hero for the historian. Clergue's affair with the local aristocrat and noted beauty, the Countess Béatrice de Planisoles formed one of the central stories that Le Roy Ladurie related in ''Montaillou'' with much sympathy for the doomed couple.

Critics of Le Roy Ladurie have argued that the Holy Inquisition was an instrument of judicial repression for whom torture or the threat of torture were routine methods.Huges-Warrington, Marnie, ''Fifty Key Thinkers on History'', London: Routledge, 2000 page 198. The Canadian historian Norman Cantor argued that none of the people questioned by Fournier had appeared willingly before the Holy Inquisition, and that therefore the Fournier Register which Le Roy Ladurie had used as his main source for ''Montaillou'' is not reliable. Other critics have noted that the people questioned by Fournier spoke in Occitan, had their remarks written down in Latin and that Le Roy Ladurie had translated the text into French and have wondered if something has been lost in the translation.

Resisting the "totalitarian temptation"

In France, the ''intelligentsia'' has more prestige than does the ''intelligentsia'' in the English-speaking world and as such, intellectuals are expected to take stands on the major issues of the day. In January 1978, Le Roy Ladurie was a founding member of the ''Comité des intellectuals pour l'Europe des libertés'' (Committee of Intellectuals for a Europe of liberties), an anti-communist group of liberal French intellectuals opposed to the powerful influence of the French Communist Party on French intellectual life and the alliance of the Socialists and the Communists which they saw as a threat to French democracy. The ''Comité des intellectuals pour l'Europe des libertés'' was not a conservative group, and instead was opposed to Communism from a liberal vantage-point, declaring itself opposed to both "the unarticulated cry and pure revolt on one hand and absolute knowledge and totalizing ideology on the other", damning the "fatal socialist-statist equation" as offering the end of the Republic and everything it stood for. In its founding manifesto, the ''Comité des intellectuals pour l'Europe des libertés'' declared its intention "to defend the synonymy of these three words: Europe, culture, freedom". Significantly, the committee did not limit its remit to France or even Western Europe, instead proclaiming its intention to defend liberty in all of Europe, Western and Eastern. He analysed his political engagement and Communism in ''Ouverture, société, pouvoir: de l’Édit de Nantes à la chute du communisme'' (2004) and ''Les grands procès politiques, ou la pédagogie infernale'' (2002).

''Carnaval de Romans''

Another work was ''Le Carnaval de Romans: de la chandeleur au mercredi des cendres'' (translated into English as ''Carnival in Romans'') which dealt with the 1580 massacre of about twenty artisans at the annual carnival in the town of Romans-sur-Isère, France.Huges-Warrington, Marnie, ''Fifty Key Thinkers on History'', London: Routledge, 2000 pages 196-197. In this book, Le Roy Ladurie used the only two surviving eyewitness accounts of the massacre (one of which was hostile towards to the victims of the massacre by Guérin, the other sympathetic yet often inaccurate by Piémond), together with such information as plague lists and tax lists, to treat the massacre as a microcosm of the political, social and religious conflicts of rural society in the latter half of the 16th century in France. This book provides an example of a micro-historical approach to the social structure of the town of Romans and tax rebellions in early modern France.

Social history

Other more recent treatments of social history by Le Roy Ladurie have included ''La sorcière de Jasmin'' (translated into English as ''Jasmin's Witch'') and ''Le siècle des Platter, 1499-1628'' (translated into English as ''The Beggar and the Professor: A Sixteenth Century Family Drama''). In ''Jasmin's Witch'', Le Roy Ladurie following the lead of Carlo Ginzburg, who argued that the idea of witchcraft as held by peasants was very different from the idea of witchcraft held by judges and churchmen. To understand the "total social fact of witchcraft," Le Roy Ladurie used the 1842 poem ''Françouneto'' written by Jacques Boè and based on a traditional French peasant folk tale. Le Roy Ladurie contended that the poem contains many authentic traces of popular beliefs about witchcraft in rural France during the 17th and 18th centuries. Le Roy Ladurie argued that the "crime" of the "witch" Françouneto was the violation of the unwritten social code of "limited wealth," namely that she increased her own wealth at the expense of others. In ''The Beggar and the Professor'', Le Roy Ladurie used the letters and memoirs of the Platter family to examine the social values of the 16th century, especially in regards to religion, medicine, crime, learning, and taxes. Another work of social history by Le Roy Ladurie was his 1982 book ''Love, Death, and Money in the Pays d'Oc, The French Peasantry: 1450-1660'', which as it title indicates examined the views held by French peasants about love, death and money.Huges-Warrington, Marnie, ''Fifty Key Thinkers on History'', London: Routledge, 2000 page 199.

Political history

Though best known for his work in "microhistory", Le Roy Ladurie has also examined the political history of France between 1460 and 1774 in a two-volume history. The first volume was ''L'Etat royal: de Louis XI à Henri IV, 1460-1610'' (translated into English as'' The French Royal State: 1460-1610''). In this book, Le Roy Ladurie argued that the major concerns of the French Crown were the economy, the Reformation and aristocratic politics, and that the main reasons for the growth of the French state was the need to raise revenue to pay for military expansion into Italy, Provence and Burgundy and its rivalry with Spain over mastery of western Europe.

In the second volume, ''Ancien Régime: de Louis XIII à Louis XV, 1610-1774'' (translated into English as ''The Ancien Régime''), Le Roy Ladurie argued that there was a close connection between the domestic and foreign policies of the French Crown. In particular, Le Roy Ladurie argued that periods of authoritarianism in domestic policy coincided with periods of aggression in foreign policy, and that periods of liberalism in domestic policy coincided with periods of a pacific foreign policy. In order to pay for war, the French state had to increase taxation to raise the necessary funds. In ''Ancien Régime'' France, society was divided into three legal categories; the First Estate (the Catholic Church), the Second Estate (the nobility) and the Third Estate (the commoners). The first two estates, which comprised the more wealthier elements of French society were exempt from taxation and to make up the shortfall in revenue, the Third Estate was taxed more heavily than what had been the case if the tax burden in French society was spread with greater equality. Le Roy Ladurie argued that because war was so expensive, the French state always had to drastically increase taxation in times of conflict. And that because of the highly unequal nature of the French tax system, the increased taxes had to be accompanied with increased repression to crush the social resistance generated by the higher taxes. The three men who dominated French politics in the 17th century, namely the Cardinal Richelieu, Cardinal Mazarin and King Louis XIV were all obsessed with winning ''la gloire'' (the glory) of making France into the world's greatest power, which meant that the 17th century was a period of constant warfare where France was almost always at war with some other power to win ''la gloire''. As a result, anti-tax revolts frequently broke out all over France in the 17th century as the Third Estate attempted to reject the oppressively heavy taxation needed to pay for the wars intended to win ''la gloire''. All of the anti-tax revolts were crushed with ferocious brutality by the Crown to send the message that it was folly on the part of ordinary people to challenge the might of the French state. Despite certain lapses in the 1750s, Le Roy Ladurie argued that the reign of King Louis XV was characterized by liberalism at home and peace abroad while the rule of Cardinal Richelieu and King Louis XIV was marked by aggression and authoritarianism. At the end of his two-volume history, Le Roy Ladurie stated that the growth of popularity of Enlightenment ideas, anti-clericalism, and liberalism had by 1774 already placed France on the road to the French Revolution. The American historian Stuart Carroll commented that in these books of the 1990s, Le Roy Ladurie was according the decisions individuals and ''histoire événementielle'' a level of importance in influencing history that he had rejected in his 1973 book ''Le Territoire de l'historien'' where he had claimed the quantitative methodology and the study of long-term structural changes had replaced ''histoire événementielle'' and biographies as the main focus of the work of a historian.

Historiography

Ladurie's mentor was Fernand Braudel, a prominent member of the Annales School and one of the most prolific contemporary historians.

At the beginning of the 1970s, Ladurie founded the movement of the "Nouvelle histoire" (New History). Le Roy Ladurie is a leading champion of "microhistory," in which a historian uses the study of an event, locality, family or life to reveal the "structures" which underlie life in the particular period under study. Some, like Niall Ferguson, have questioned the value of "microhistory," arguing that it is wrong to assume that the study of one village or one incident in one town or one family reveals wider patterns of life in France, let alone the rest of Europe. Another line of criticism has centered around Le Roy Ladurie's use of the term "structures." His critics contend that he has never clearly defined the term, nor explained why "structures" change over time, or even whether the "structures" Le Roy Ladurie purports to find exist.

Le Roy Ladurie has also worked on the history of French regions (''Histoire de France des régions'', 2004) and on anthropometric history as well as on the impact of climate changes on human history. Besides writing books, Le Roy Ladurie is a prolific essayist writing on variety of subjects such as the utility of computers as method of historical research, rates of delinquency in the French Army in the 19th century, the spread of global diseases and the belief of French peasants that magic could be used to generate impotence. The latter was a reference to the widespread practice of French peasant men in the Middle Ages and the early modern period of paying witches to use their (supposed) magical powers to make their rivals in love go impotent. Le Roy Ladurie is also known as one of the first modern environmental historians because his work focused on human agency in environmental change, as well as environmental factors in human history.

Works

*''Les Paysans de Languedoc'', Paris, ed. SEVPEN, 1966.
* ''Histoire du climat depuis l'an mil'', Paris, ed. Flammarion, 1967.
* ''Anthropologie du conscrit français'' (with J.-P. Aron et al.), Paris, ed. EHESS, 1972.
* ''Médecins, climat, épidémies'' (with J.-P. Desaive et al.), Paris, ed. EHESS, 1972.
* ''Le Territoire de l'historien'', Paris, ed. Gallimard, 1973.
* ''Montaillou, village occitan de 1294 à 1324'', Paris, ed. Gallimard, 1975.
* ''Histoire économique et sociale de la France'', Paris, ed. PUF, 1976.
* ''Le Carnaval de Romans : de la Chandeleur au Mercredi des cendres (1579–1580)'', Paris, ed. Gallimard, 1979.
* ''L’Argent, l'amour et la mort en pays d'Oc'', Paris, ed. Seuil, 1980.
* ''La Sorcière de Jasmin'', Paris, ed. Seuil, 1980.
* ''Inventaire des campagnes'', Paris, ed. JC Lattès, 1980.
* ''Histoire de la France urbaine'', Paris, ed. JC Lattès, 1981.
* ''Parmi les historiens'', Paris, ed. Seuil, 1983.
* ''Pierre Prion, scribe'', Paris, ed. Gallimard, 1987.
* ''L’État royal 1460-1610'', Paris, ed. Hachette, 1987.
* ''L'Ancien Régime, 1610-1770'', Paris, ed. Hachette, 1991.
* ''Histoire de la Bibliothèque nationale de France'', Paris, ed. Collège de France 1995.
* ''Le Siècle des Platter'', Paris, ed. Fayard, 1997.
* ''L'Historien, le Chiffre et le Texte'', Paris, ed. Fayard, 1997.
* ''Saint-Simon ou Le système de la Cour'', Paris, ed. Fayard, 1997.
* ''Histoire du Languedoc'', Toulouse, ed. Privat, 2000.
* ''Histoire de France des régions : la périphérie française, des origines à nos jours'', Paris, ed. Seuil, 2001.
* ''Autour de Montaillou, un village occitan : histoire et religiosité d'un village au Moyen Âge'', Paris, ed. Hydre, 2001.
* ''Histoire des paysans français : de la peste noire à la Révolution'', Paris, ed. Seuil, 2002.
* ''Les Grands Procès politiques'', Paris, ed. Rocher, 2002.
* ''La Dîme royale'', Paris, ed. Imprimerie nationale, 2002.
* ''Abrégé d'histoire du climat du Moyen Âge à nos jours'' (with Anouchka Vasak), Paris, ed. Fayard, 2007.
* ''Histoire humaine et comparée du climat'', Paris, ed. Fayard, 2009.
* ''Histoire et système'' (dir.), Paris ed. Le Cerf, 2010.
* ''Les fluctuations du climat de l'an mil à aujourd'hui'', Paris, ed. Fayard, 2011.
* ''La Civilisation rurale'', Paris, ed. Allia, 2012.
* ''Une vie avec l'histoire. Mémoires'', Paris, ed. Tallandier, 2014.
* ''Les Paysans français d'Ancien Régime'', Paris, ed. Seuil, 2015.
* ''Huit leçons d'histoire'', Paris, ed. Fayard, 2016.
* ''Brève histoire de l'Ancien Régime'', Paris, ed. Fayard, 2017.

Honours and awards

Honours

* Grand Officier of the Legion of Honour (France)
* Grand Cross of the National Order of Merit (France)
* Commander of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres (France)

Prize

* Prize Pierre-Lafue (1978)

Acknowledgement

* Member of the Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques
* Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
* Member of the Academia Europaea
* Member of the Polish Academy of Sciences
* Member of the Japan Academy
* Member of the Académie de Nîmes
* Foreign honorary member of the National Academy of Sciences

Honorary degrees

* University of Oxford
* University of Leicester
* Durham University
* University of Leeds
* University of York
* University of Hull
* University of Sussex
* University of Michigan
* University of Pennsylvania
* Carnegie Mellon University
* University at Albany, SUNY
* Université de Montréal
* University of Dublin
* University of Geneva
* HEC Paris
* University of Haifa

Endnotes

References

* Barzun, Jacques ''Clio and the Doctors: Psycho-history, Quanto-history and History'', Chicago, II: University of Chicago Press, 1974.
* Burke, Peter ''The French Historical Revolution: The Annales School, 1929-1989'', Cambridge: Polity Press, 1990.
* Cantor, Norman ''Inventing the Middle Ages: the Lives, Works and Ideas of the Great Medievalists in the Twentieth Century'', New York: W. Morow, 1991.
*Carrard, P. "The New History and the Discourse of the Tentative: Le Roy Ladurie's Question Marks" pages 1–14 from ''Clio'', Volume 15, Issue #1, 1985.
*Carrard, P. ''Poetics of the New History: French Historical Discourse from Braudel to Chartier'', Baltimore, M.D.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992.
*Hartigan, F.X. "Montaillou" pages 275-283 from ''Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Western Society for French History'', Volume 21, 1994.
* Himmelfarb, Gertrude ''The New History and the Old: Critical Essays and Reappraisals'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987.
* Lloyd, Christopher ''The Structures of History'', Blackwell, Oxford, 1993.
*Newman, E.L. "Le Roy Ladurie's Magic: Jasmin's Witch" pages 285-292 from ''The Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Western Society for French History'', Volume 21, 1994.
*Sonnino, P. "Les paysans de Languedoc: vingt-sept ans après" pages 293-300 from ''The Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Western Society for French History'', Volume 21, 1994.
* Stone, Lawrence "In the Alleys of Mentalité" pages 20–23 from ''New York Review of Books'', Volume 26, Issue #17, November 8, 1979.
*Willis, F.R. "The Contribution of the Annales School to Agrarian History: a Review Essay" pages 538-548 from ''Agricultural History'', Volume 52, Issue #4, 1978.

{{DEFAULTSORT:Le Roy Ladurie, Emmanuel
1929 births
Living people
People from Calvados (department)
École Normale Supérieure alumni
Collège de France faculty
French Communist Party members
20th-century French historians
Historiographers
Historians of France
Microhistorians
Members of the Académie des sciences morales et politiques
Lycée Henri-IV alumni
Lycée Lakanal alumni
Environmental historians
French male writers
Corresponding Fellows of the British Academy
category:Historians of Catharism
Members of the American Philosophical Society