Electroacoustic music is a

genre Genre () is any form or type of communication in any mode (written, spoken, digital, artistic, etc.) with socially-agreed-upon conventions developed over time. In popular usage, it normally describes a category of literature, music, or other f ...

of popular and Western art music in which composers use technology to manipulate the timbres of acoustic sounds, sometimes by using audio signal processing, such as

reverb Reverberation (also known as reverb), in acoustics, is a persistence of sound, after a sound is produced. Reverberation is created when a sound or signal is reflected causing numerous reflections to build up and then decay as the sound is abs ...

or harmonizing, on acoustical instruments. It originated around the middle of the 20th century, following the incorporation of electric sound production into compositional practice. The initial developments in electroacoustic music composition to fixed media during the 20th century are associated with the activities of the at the ORTF in Paris, the home of

musique concrète Musique concrète (; ): " problem for any translator of an academic work in French is that the language is relatively abstract and theoretical compared to English; one might even say that the mode of thinking itself tends to be more schematic, wit ...

, the Studio for Electronic Music in Cologne, where the focus was on the composition of ''

elektronische Musik Electronic music is a genre of music that employs electronic musical instruments, digital instruments, or circuitry-based music technology in its creation. It includes both music made using electronic and electromechanical means (electroacou ...

,'' and the Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center in New York City, where tape music, electronic music, and

computer music Computer music is the application of computing technology in music composition, to help human composers create new music or to have computers independently create music, such as with algorithmic composition programs. It includes the theory and ...

were all explored. Practical electronic music instruments began to appear in the early 20th century.

Tape music

Tape music is an integral part of ''

'', which uses the

tape recorder An audio tape recorder, also known as a tape deck, tape player or tape machine or simply a tape recorder, is a sound recording and reproduction device that records and plays back sounds usually using magnetic tape for storage. In its present ...

as its central musical source. The music can utilise pre-recorded sound fragments and the creation of loops, which can be altered and manipulated through techniques such as editing and playback speed manipulation. The work of Halim El-Dabh is perhaps the earliest example of tape (or, in this case,

Wire recording Wire recording or magnetic wire recording was the first magnetic recording technology, an analog type of audio storage in which a magnetic recording is made on a thin steel wire. The first crude magnetic recorder was invented in 1898 by Va ...

) music. El-Dabh's ''The Expression of Zaar'', first presented in Cairo, Egypt, in 1944, was an early work using ''musique concrète''–like techniques similar to those developed in Paris during the same period. El-Dabh would later become more famous for his work at the Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center, where in 1959 he composed the influential piece ''Leiyla and the Poet''. US composer

John Cage John Milton Cage Jr. (September 5, 1912 – August 12, 1992) was an American composer and music theorist. A pioneer of indeterminacy in music, electroacoustic music, and non-standard use of musical instruments, Cage was one of the leading f ...

's assembly of the ''

Williams Mix ''Williams Mix'' (1951–1953) is a 4'15" musique concrete composition by John Cage for eight simultaneously played independent quarter-inch magnetic tapes. The first octophonic music, the piece was created by Cage with the assistance of Earle B ...

'' serves as an example of the rigors of tape music. First, Cage created a 192-page score. Over the course of a year, 600 sounds were assembled and recorded. Cut tape segments for each occurrence of each sound were accumulated on the score. Then the cut segments were spliced to one of eight tapes, work finished on January 16, 1953. The premiere performance (realization) of the 4'15" work was given on March 21, 1953 at the

University of Illinois The University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign (U of I, Illinois, University of Illinois, or UIUC) is a public land-grant research university in Illinois in the twin cities of Champaign and Urbana. It is the flagship institution of the Uni ...

, Urbana.

Electronic music

In Cologne, ''

'', pioneered in 1949–51 by the composer Herbert Eimert and the physicist

Werner Meyer-Eppler Werner Meyer-Eppler (30 April 1913 – 8 July 1960), was a Belgian-born German physicist, experimental acoustician, phoneticist and information theorist. Meyer-Eppler was born in Antwerp. He studied mathematics, physics, and chemistry, ...

, was based solely on electronically generated (synthetic) sounds, particularly

sine wave A sine wave, sinusoidal wave, or just sinusoid is a mathematical curve defined in terms of the '' sine'' trigonometric function, of which it is the graph. It is a type of continuous wave and also a smooth periodic function. It occurs often in ...

s. The beginning of the development of

electronic music Electronic music is a genre of music that employs electronic musical instruments, digital instruments, or circuitry-based music technology in its creation. It includes both music made using electronic and electromechanical means ( electro ...

has been traced back to "the invention of the valve acuum tubein 1906". The precise control afforded by the studio allowed for what Eimert considered to be the subjection of everything, "to the last element of the single note", to serial

permutation In mathematics, a permutation of a set is, loosely speaking, an arrangement of its members into a sequence or linear order, or if the set is already ordered, a rearrangement of its elements. The word "permutation" also refers to the act or pro ...

, "resulting in a completely new way of composing sound"; in the studio, serial operations could be applied to elements such as timbre and dynamics. The common link between the two schools is that the music is recorded and performed through loudspeakers, without a human performer. The majority of electroacoustic pieces use a combination of recorded sound and synthesized or processed sounds, and the schism between Schaeffer's and Eimert's approaches has been overcome, the first major example being

Karlheinz Stockhausen Karlheinz Stockhausen (; 22 August 1928 – 5 December 2007) was a German composer, widely acknowledged by critics as one of the most important but also controversial composers of the 20th and early 21st centuries. He is known for his groundb ...

's ''

Gesang der Jünglinge ''Gesang der Jünglinge'' (literally "Song of the Youths") is an electronic music work by Karlheinz Stockhausen. It was realized in 1955–56 at the Westdeutscher Rundfunk studio in Cologne and is Work Number 8 in the composer's catalog. The v ...

'' of 1955–56.

Circuit bending

Circuit bending Circuit bending is the creative, chance-based customization of the circuits within electronic devices such as low-voltage, battery-powered guitar effects, children's toys and digital synthesizers to create new musical or visual instruments an ...

is the creative short-circuiting of low

voltage Voltage, also known as electric pressure, electric tension, or (electric) potential difference, is the difference in electric potential between two points. In a static electric field, it corresponds to the work needed per unit of charge to ...

, battery-powered electronic audio devices such as guitar effects, children's toys and small

synthesizers A synthesizer (also spelled synthesiser) is an electronic musical instrument that generates audio signals. Synthesizers typically create sounds by generating waveforms through methods including subtractive synthesis, additive synthesis a ...

to create new musical instruments and sound generators. Emphasizing spontaneity and randomness, the techniques of circuit bending have been commonly associated with

noise music Noise music is a genre of music that is characterised by the expressive use of noise within a musical context. This type of music tends to challenge the distinction that is made in conventional musical practices between musical and non-musical ...

, though many more conventional contemporary musicians and musical groups have been known to experiment with "bent" instruments.

Examples of notable works

* Milton Babbitt – '' Philomel'' (1964) *

Luciano Berio Luciano Berio (24 October 1925 – 27 May 2003) was an Italian composer noted for his experimental work (in particular his 1968 composition ''Sinfonia'' and his series of virtuosic solo pieces titled ''Sequenza''), and for his pioneering work ...

– '' Thema (Omaggio a Joyce)'' (1958–59) * Johanna Beyer – ''Music of the Spheres'' (1938) * Konrad Boehmer – ''Aspekt'' (1964–66), ''Apocalipsis cum figuris'' (1984) *

Pierre Boulez Pierre Louis Joseph Boulez (; 26 March 1925 – 5 January 2016) was a French composer, conductor and writer, and the founder of several musical institutions. He was one of the dominant figures of post-war Western classical music. Born in Mo ...

– '' Répons'' (1981–84) *

– ''

Imaginary Landscape No. 1 ''Imaginary Landscape No. 1'' is a composition for records of constant and variable frequency, large chinese cymbal and string piano by American composer John Cage and the first in the series of Imaginary Landscapes. It was composed in 1939. Co ...

'' (1939) * Mario Davidovsky – '' Synchronisms No. 6'' for Piano and Electronic Sound (1970) * Halim El-Dabh – '' Leiyla and the Poet'' (1961) * Karel Goeyvaerts – '' Nummer 5 met zuivere tonen'' (1953) * Jean-Michel Jarre – ''Deserted Palace'' (1972) *

Phil Kline Phil Kline (born 1953) is an American composer, sound artist, and performer most recognized for his ''Unsilent Night'' (1992) and ''Zippo Songs'' (2004). Beginning as a guitarist and singer in the New York City art punk scene, Kline has since g ...

– ''

Unsilent Night ''Unsilent Night'' is a musical composition and participatory performance art piece by American composer Phil Kline which, since its creation in 1992, has been performed around the world annually in December. In the performance of this compositio ...

'' (1992), for cassettes in boomboxes * Gottfried Michael Koenig – ''Project 1'' (1964), ''Project 2'' (1966) *

Alvin Lucier Alvin Augustus Lucier Jr. (May 14, 1931 – December 1, 2021) was an American composer of experimental music and sound installations that explore acoustic phenomena and auditory perception. A long-time music professor at Wesleyan University in ...

– '' I Am Sitting in a Room'' (1969) *

Ivo Malec Ivo Malec (30 March 1925, in Zagreb – 14 August 2019, in Paris) was a Croatian-born French composer, music educator and conductor. One of the earliest Yugoslav composers to obtain high international regard, his works have been performed by ...

– ''Triola, ou Symphonie pour moi-même'' (1977–78) * Luigi Nono – ''La fabbrica illuminata'' (1964), ''A floresta é jovem e cheia de vida'' (1966), '' Contrappunto dialettico alla mente'' (1968), ''

Como una ola de fuerza y luz (Spanish for ''Like a wave of strength and light'') is a composition for soprano, piano, orchestra, and magnetic tape by Italian composer Luigi Nono. It was composed between 1971 and 1972 and was Nono's first attempt at giving the piano a l ...

'' (1971–72) *

Pauline Oliveros Pauline Oliveros (May 30, 1932 – November 24, 2016) was an American composer, accordionist and a central figure in the development of post-war experimental and electronic music. She was a founding member of the San Francisco Tape Music Center ...

– ''Sonic Meditations, "Teach Yourself to Fly"'' (1961) *

Else Marie Pade Else Marie Pade (2 December 1924 – 18 January 2016) was a Danish composer of electronic music. She was educated as a pianist at the ''Kongelige Danske Musikkonservatorium'' (Royal Danish Academy of Music) in Copenhagen. She studied composition ...

– ''Symphonie Magnétophonique'' (1958) *

Henri Pousseur Henri Léon Marie-Thérèse Pousseur (23 June 1929 – 6 March 2009) was a Belgian classical composer, teacher, and music theorist. Biography Pousseur was born in Malmedy and studied at the Academies of Music in Liège and in Brussels from 1947 ...

– '' Scambi'' (1957), ''Trois Visages de Liège'' (1961), ''Paraboles-Mix'' (1972), ''Seize Paysages planétairesl'' (2000) *

Steve Reich Stephen Michael Reich ( ; born October 3, 1936) is an American composer known for his contribution to the development of minimal music in the mid to late 1960s. Reich's work is marked by its use of repetitive figures, slow harmonic rhythm, ...

– ''

Pendulum Music ''Pendulum Music'' (For Microphones, Amplifiers Speakers and Performers) Reich, S. (1974). "''Pendulum Music''". In '' Writings About Music'' (pp. 12–13). The Press of the Nova Scotia College of Art and Design (Co-published by: New York Univ ...

'' (1968), for microphones, amplifiers, speakers and performers * Pierre Schaeffer – '' Cinq études de bruits'' (1948) *

– ''

'' (1955–56), '' Kontakte'' (1958–60), '' Mixtur'' (1964), '' Mikrophonie I & II'' (1964 and 1965), ''

Telemusik ''Telemusik'' is an electronic composition by Karlheinz Stockhausen, and is number 20 in his catalog of works. History Through his composition student, Makoto Shinohara, Stockhausen was invited by the Japan Broadcasting Corporation NHK to visit ...

'' (1966), '' Hymnen'' (1966–67), ''

Oktophonie (Octophony) is a 1991 octophonic electronic-music composition by Karlheinz Stockhausen. A component layer of act 2 of the opera , it may also be performed as an independent composition. It has a duration of 69 minutes. Function in ''Dienstag'' ...

'' (1991), '' Cosmic Pulses'' (2006–2007) * James Tenney – ''

For Ann (rising) ''For Ann (rising)'' is a piece of electronic music composed by American composer and music theorist James Tenney in 1969. The piece incorporates the Shepard tone concept, named after Tenney's colleague at Bell Labs, psychologist Roger Shepard. The ...

'' (1969) * Edgard Varèse – ''

Poème électronique ''Poème électronique'' (English Translation: "Electronic Poem") is an 8-minute piece of electronic music by composer Edgard Varèse, written for the Philips Pavilion at the 1958 Brussels World's Fair. The Philips corporation commissioned Le ...

'' (1958) * Charles Wuorinen – '' Time's Encomium'' (1969) * Iannis Xenakis – ''Persepolis'' (1971)

Electronic and electroacoustic instruments

* Birotron (1974), Dave Biro * Buchla 100 and 200 serie (1960s–70s), Buchla Lightning I (1991) and Buchla Lightning II (1995) by Don Buchla * Cembaphon (1951), Harald Bode * Chamberlin (1946) * Clavinet * Clavioline (early 1950s) and Concert Clavioline (1953), Harald Bode *

Clavivox The Clavivox was a keyboard sound synthesizer and sequencer developed by American composer Raymond Scott beginning in 1952. He applied for a patent in December 1956 and was granted on Feb. 3, 1959. Scott had earlier built a theremin as a toy for ...

, Circle Machine, Bass Line Generator, Rhythm Modulator, Bandito the Bongo Artist, and Electronium (1950s–60s), Raymond Scott *

DX7 The Yamaha DX7 is a synthesizer manufactured by the Yamaha Corporation from 1983 to 1989. It was the first successful digital synthesizer and is one of the best-selling synthesizers in history, selling more than 200,000 units. In the early 1980 ...

(1983), Yamaha * Elektronium (in German) * EMS Synthi AKS (1972) * Fairlight CMI (1978) * Gravikord (1986), Robert Grawi *

Kraakdoos A kraakdoos or cracklebox is a custom-made instrument, in the form of a noise-making electronic device. It is a small box with six metal contacts on top, which generate various unusual sounds and tones when pressed by the performer's fingers. Th ...

/ Cracklebox (1960s–70s),

Michel Waisvisz Michel Waisvisz ( ; 8 July 1949, Leiden – 18 June 2008, Amsterdam) was a Dutch composer, performer and inventor of experimental electronic musical instruments. He was the artistic director of STEIM in Amsterdam from 1981, where he collaborate ...

Mellotron The Mellotron is an electro-mechanical musical instrument developed in Birmingham, England, in 1963. It is played by pressing its keys, each of which pushes a length of magnetic tape against a capstan, which pulls it across a playback head. ...

(1960s) * Melochord (1947–49), Harald Bode * Melodium (1938), Harald Bode *

Moog synthesizer The Moog synthesizer is a modular synthesizer developed by the American engineer Robert Moog. Moog debuted it in 1964, and Moog's company R. A. Moog Co. (later known as Moog Music) produced numerous models from 1965 to 1981, and again from 20 ...

(1965), Robert Moog * Ondioline (1939), Georges Jenny *

Optigan The Optigan (a portmanteau of Optical Organ) is an electronic keyboard instrument designed for the consumer market. The name stems from the instrument's reliance on pre-recorded optical soundtracks to reproduce sound. Later versions (built under ...

(1971) * Orchestron (1975), Vako Synthesizers * Polychord (1950) and Polychord III (1951), Harald Bode * Electronic Sackbut (1945), Hugh Le Caine * Sampler (musical instrument) *

Synclavier The Synclavier is an early digital synthesizer, polyphonic digital sampling system, and music workstation manufactured by New England Digital Corporation of Norwich, Vermont. It was produced in various forms from the late 1970s into the earl ...

(1975), Jon Appleton, Sydney A. Alonso and Cameron Jones *

Telharmonium The Telharmonium (also known as the Dynamophone) was an early electrical organ, developed by Thaddeus Cahill c. 1896 and patented in 1897. , filed 1896-02-04. The electrical signal from the Telharmonium was transmitted over wires; it was hear ...

(1897), Thaddeus Cahill *

Theremin The theremin (; originally known as the ætherphone/etherphone, thereminophone or termenvox/thereminvox) is an electronic musical instrument controlled without physical contact by the performer (who is known as a thereminist). It is named afte ...

(1928),

Leon Theremin Leon Theremin (born Lev Sergeyevich Termen rus, Лев Сергеевич Термéн, p=ˈlʲef sʲɪrˈɡʲejɪvʲɪtɕ tɨrˈmʲen; – 3 November 1993) was a Russian and Soviet inventor, most famous for his invention of the theremin, one o ...

* Tuttivox (1953), Harald Bode * UPIC (1977), Iannis Xenakis and CEMAMu * Warbo Formant organ (1937), Harald Bode

Centers, associations and events for electroacoustics and related arts

Important centers of research and composition can be found around the world, and there are numerous conferences and festivals which present electroacoustic music, notably the

International Computer Music Conference The International Computer Music Conference (ICMC) is a yearly international conference for computer music researchers and composers. It is the annual conference of the International Computer Music Association (ICMA). History In 1986, the Inst ...

, the international conference on

New Interfaces for Musical Expression New Interfaces for Musical Expression, also known as NIME, is an international conference dedicated to scientific research on the development of new technologies and their role in musical expression and artistic performance. History The confe ...

, the Electroacoustic Music Studies Conference, and the

Ars Electronica Ars Electronica Linz GmbH is an Austrian cultural, educational and scientific institute active in the field of new media art, founded in Linz in 1979. It is based at the Ars Electronica Center (AEC), which houses the Museum of the Future, in th ...

Festival (Linz, Austria). A number of national associations promote the art form, notably the

Canadian Electroacoustic Community Founded in 1986, La Communauté électroacoustique canadienne / The Canadian Electroacoustic Community (CEC) is Canada's national electroacoustic / computer music / sonic arts organization and is dedicated to promoting this progressive art form ...

(CEC) in Canada, the

Society for Electro-Acoustic Music in the United States The Society for Electro-Acoustic Music in the United States (SEAMUS) is a nonprofit US-based organization founded in 1984 that aims to promote the performance and creation of electro-acoustic music in the United States. In particular, the organiza ...

(SEAMUS) in the US, the

Australasian Computer Music Association The Australasian Computer Music Association (ACMA) is a nonprofit Australia and New Zealand based organisation founded in 1989, which aims to promote electroacoustic and computer music. History ACMA was formed in 1989 as a regional organisation t ...

in Australia and New Zealand, and Sound and Music (previously the Sonic Arts Network) in the UK. The ''

Computer Music Journal ''Computer Music Journal'' is a peer-reviewed academic journal that covers a wide range of topics related to digital audio signal processing and electroacoustic music. It is published on-line and in hard copy by MIT Press. The journal is accompani ...

'' and '' Organised Sound'' are the two most important peer-reviewed journals dedicated to electroacoustic studies, while several national associations produce print and electronic publications.

Festivals

There have been a number of festivals that feature electroacoustic music. Early festivals such as Donaueschingen Festival, founded in 1921, were some of the first to include electroacoustic instruments and pieces. This was followed by ONCE Festival of New Music in the 1950s, and since the 1960s there has been a growth of festivals that focus exclusively on electroacoustic music. * 60x60 (Intl.) *

(Austria) *

Berlin Atonal Berlin Atonal is an annual festival for sonic and visual art in two distinct stages. It first took place between 1982 and 1990, relaunching in 2013 under new direction and continuing to the present day. The festival presents contemporary, interdis ...

(Germany) * Cybersonica (UK) *Dias de Música Electroacústica (Intl.) *

Electro-music The electro-music music festival is a festival and conference devoted to experimental electronic music Experimental music is a general label for any music or music genre that pushes existing boundaries and genre definitions. Experimental comp ...

(UK) * Electroacoustic Music Days (Greece) *

Electronic Music Midwest Electronic Music Midwest (EMM) is a festival of new electroacoustic music. History EMM is the result of a consortium formed between Kansas City Kansas Community College (KCKCC), Lewis University, and the University of Missouri–Kansas City. Thi ...

(US) * Electrofringe (Australia) *

Expo '70 The or Expo 70 was a world's fair held in Suita, Osaka Prefecture, Japan between March 15 and September 13, 1970. Its theme was "Progress and Harmony for Mankind." In Japanese, Expo '70 is often referred to as . It was the first world's fai ...

(Japan) *

(Intl.) * International Electroacoustic Music Festival (Cuba) * Les Siestes Electroniques (France) * Music For People & Thingamajigs Festival (US) *

(Int.) *Numusic (Norway) *

NWEAMO New West Evolving Arts & Music Organization (NWEAMO), founded by composer Joseph Waters in Portland, Oregon, U.S. in 1998, is a nonprofit organization based in San Diego, California that produces the annual international festival of electro-acoust ...

(US) *

Olympia Experimental Music Festival The Olympia Experimental Music Festival, also known for a time as The Olympia Festival of Experimental Musics,Christopher DelaurentiClassical, Jazz, & Avant: Experimental Music Festival '' The Stranger'', June 26 – July 2, 2003 issue. Accessed ...

(US) *ONCE Festival of New Music (US) *Présences Électroniques (France) * Pro Musica Nova (Germany) *

Spark Festival Spark commonly refers to: * Spark (fire), a small glowing particle or ember * Electric spark, a form of electrical discharge Spark may also refer to: Places * Spark Point, a rocky point in the South Shetland Islands People * Spark (surname) ...

(US) * TodaysArt (The Netherlands)

Conferences and symposiums

Alongside paper presentations, workshops and seminars, many of these events also feature concert performances or sound installations created by those attending or which are related to the theme of the conference / symposium.

References

Works cited

* * * * * * * * * *

Tape music

Electronic music

Circuit bending

Examples of notable works

Electronic and electroacoustic instruments

Centers, associations and events for electroacoustics and related arts

Festivals

Conferences and symposiums

See also

References

Works cited

Further reading

External links