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Landscape-scale conservation is a
holistic Holism () is the idea that various systems (e.g. physical, biological, social) should be viewed as wholes, not merely as a collection of parts. The term "holism" was coined by Jan Smuts in his 1926 book '' Holism and Evolution''."holism, n." OED On ...
approach to landscape management, aiming to reconcile the competing objectives of nature conservation and economic activities across a given landscape. Landscape-scale conservation may sometimes be attempted because of
climate change In common usage, climate change describes global warming—the ongoing increase in global average temperature—and its effects on Earth's climate system. Climate change in a broader sense also includes previous long-term changes to ...
. It can be seen as an alternative to
site based conservation Site-based conservation is an approach to nature conservation that relies on the designation of important or representative examples of sites supporting key habitats or species, such as Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs) or Important Bird Areas (IBAs) ...
. Many global problems such as poverty,
food security Food security speaks to the availability of food in a country (or geography) and the ability of individuals within that country (geography) to access, afford, and source adequate foodstuffs. According to the United Nations' Committee on World ...
,
climate change In common usage, climate change describes global warming—the ongoing increase in global average temperature—and its effects on Earth's climate system. Climate change in a broader sense also includes previous long-term changes to ...
,
water scarcity Water scarcity (closely related to water stress or water crisis) is the lack of fresh water resources to meet the standard water demand. There are two types of water scarcity: physical or economic water scarcity. Physical water scarcity is whe ...
,
deforestation Deforestation or forest clearance is the removal of a forest or stand of trees from land that is then converted to non-forest use. Deforestation can involve conversion of forest land to farms, ranches, or urban use. The most concentrated ...
and
biodiversity loss Biodiversity loss includes the worldwide extinction of different species, as well as the local reduction or loss of species in a certain habitat, resulting in a loss of biological diversity. The latter phenomenon can be temporary or permanent, de ...
are connected. For example, lifting people out of poverty can increase consumption and drive climate change. Expanding agriculture can exacerbate
water scarcity Water scarcity (closely related to water stress or water crisis) is the lack of fresh water resources to meet the standard water demand. There are two types of water scarcity: physical or economic water scarcity. Physical water scarcity is whe ...
and drive
habitat loss Habitat destruction (also termed habitat loss and habitat reduction) is the process by which a natural habitat becomes incapable of supporting its native species. The organisms that previously inhabited the site are displaced or dead, thereby ...
. Proponents of landscape management argue that as these problems are interconnected, coordinated approaches are needed to address them, by focussing on how landscapes can generate multiple benefits. For example, a river basin can supply water for towns and
agriculture Agriculture or farming is the practice of cultivating plants and livestock. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that enabled people t ...
, timber and food crops for people and industry, and habitat for biodiversity; and each one of these users can have impacts on the others. Landscapes in general have been recognised as important units for conservation by intergovernmental bodies, government initiatives, and research institutes. Problems with this approach include difficulties in monitoring, and the proliferation of definitions and terms relating to it.


Definitions

There are many overlapping terms and definitions, but many terms have similar meanings. A sustainable landscape, for example, meets "the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs." Approaching conservation by means of landscapes can be seen as "a conceptual framework whereby stakeholders in a landscape aim to reconcile competing social, economic and environmental objectives". Instead of focussing on a single use of the land it aims to ensure that the interests of different stakeholders are met. The starting point for all landscape-scale conservation schemes must be an understanding of the character of the landscape. Landscape character goes beyond aesthetic. It involves understanding how the landscape functions to support communities, cultural heritage and development, the economy, as well as the wildlife and natural resources of the area. Landscape character requires careful assessment according to accepted methodologies. Landscape character assessment will contribute to the determination of what scale is appropriate in which landscape. "Landscape scale" does not merely mean acting at a bigger scale: it means conservation is carried out at the correct scale and that it takes into account the human elements of the landscape, both past and present.


History

The word 'landscape' in English is a loanword from
Dutch Dutch commonly refers to: * Something of, from, or related to the Netherlands * Dutch people () * Dutch language () Dutch may also refer to: Places * Dutch, West Virginia, a community in the United States * Pennsylvania Dutch Country People E ...
''landschap'' introduced in the 1660s and originally meant a painting. The meaning a "tract of land with its distinguishing characteristics" was derived from that in 1886. This was then used as a verb as of 1916. The German
geographer A geographer is a physical scientist, social scientist or humanist whose area of study is geography, the study of Earth's natural environment and human society, including how society and nature interacts. The Greek prefix "geo" means "earth" a ...
Carl Troll Carl Troll (24 December 1899 in Gabersee – 21 July 1975 in Bonn), was a German geographer, brother of botanist Wilhelm Troll. From 1919 until 1922 Troll studied biology, chemistry, geology, geography and physics at the Universität in München. ...
coined the German term ''Landschaftsökologie''–thus '
landscape ecology Landscape ecology is the science of studying and improving relationships between ecological processes in the environment and particular ecosystems. This is done within a variety of landscape scales, development spatial patterns, and organizatio ...
' in 1939. He developed this terminology and many early concepts of landscape ecology as part of this work, which consisted of applying
aerial photograph Aerial photography (or airborne imagery) is the taking of photographs from an aircraft or other airborne platforms. When taking motion pictures, it is also known as aerial videography. Platforms for aerial photography include fixed-wing ai ...
interpretation to studies of interactions between environment, agriculture and vegetation. In the UK conservation of landscapes can be said to have begun in 1945 with the publication of the ''Report to the Government on National Parks in England and Wales''. The
National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949 The National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949 is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom which created the National Parks Commission which later became the Countryside Commission and then the Countryside Agency, which became ...
introduced the legislation for the creation
Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty An Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB; , AHNE) is an area of countryside in England, Wales, and Northern Ireland, that has been designated for conservation due to its significant landscape value. Areas are designated in recognition of thei ...
(AONB).
Northern Ireland Northern Ireland ( ga, Tuaisceart Éireann ; sco, label= Ulster-Scots, Norlin Airlann) is a part of the United Kingdom, situated in the north-east of the island of Ireland, that is variously described as a country, province or region. Nort ...
has the same system after adoption of the Amenity Lands (NI) Act 1965. The first of these AONB were defined in 1956, with the last being created in 1995. The
Permanent European Conference for the Study of the Rural Landscape The Permanent European Conference for the Study of the Rural Landscape (PECSRL) is an international network of landscape researchers whose interest focus on the past, present and future of European landscapes, and serves as an international platfo ...
was established in 1957. The
European Landscape Convention The European Landscape Convention of the Council of Europe, also known as the Florence Convention, is the first international treaty to be exclusively devoted to all aspects of European landscape. It applies to the entire territory of the Parties ...
was initiated by the Congress of Regional and Local Authorities of the Council of Europe (CLRAE) in 1994, was adopted by the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe in 2000,Explanatory Report
Art. 4.
and came into force in 2004. The conservation community began to take notice of the science of landscape ecology in the 1980s. Efforts to develop concepts of landscape management that integrate international social and economic development with biodiversity conservation began in 1992. Landscape management now exists in multiple iterations and alongside other concepts such as
watershed management Watershed management is the study of the relevant characteristics of a watershed aimed at the sustainable distribution of its resources and the process of creating and implementing plans, programs and projects to sustain and enhance watershed fu ...
,
landscape ecology Landscape ecology is the science of studying and improving relationships between ecological processes in the environment and particular ecosystems. This is done within a variety of landscape scales, development spatial patterns, and organizatio ...
and cultural landscapes.


International

The
UN Environment Programme The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) is responsible for coordinating responses to environmental issues within the United Nations system. It was established by Maurice Strong, its first director, after the United Nations Conference on th ...
stated in 2015 that the landscape approach embodies
ecosystem management Ecosystem management is an approach to natural resource management that aims to ensure the long-term sustainability and persistence of an ecosystems function and services while meeting socioeconomic, political, and cultural needs. Although indige ...
. UNEP uses the approach with the Ecosystem Management of Productive Landscapes project. The scientific committee of the
Convention on Biological Diversity The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), known informally as the Biodiversity Convention, is a multilateral treaty. The Convention has three main goals: the conservation of biological diversity (or biodiversity); the sustainable use of its ...
also considers the perspective of a landscape the most important scale for improving sustainable use of biodiversity. There are global fora on landscapes. During the Livelihoods and Landscapes Strategies programme the
International Union for Conservation of Nature The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN; officially International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources) is an international organization working in the field of nature conservation and sustainable use of nat ...
applied this approach to locations worldwide, in 27 landscapes in 23 different countries. Examples of landscape approaches can be global or continental, for example in Africa, Oceania and Latin America. The
European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development The European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development (EAFRD) is one of the European Structural and Investment Funds which was set up for the financing of Rural Development Programme (RDP) actions by European Union Council Regulation (EC) No 1290/ ...
plays an important part in funding landscape conservation in Europe.


Relevance to international commitments

Some argue landscape management can address the Sustainable Development Goals.Reed J, van Vianen J, Sunderland T. 2015. From global complexity to local reality: Aligning implementation pathways for the Sustainable Development Goals and landscape approaches. Infobrief No. 129. Bogor, Indonesia: Center for International Forestry Research. Many of these goals have potential synergies or trade-offs: some therefore argue that addressing these goals individually may not be effective, and landscape approaches provide a potential framework to manage them. For example, increasing areas of irrigated agricultural land to end hunger could have adverse impacts on terrestrial ecosystems or sustainable water management. Landscape approaches intend to include different sectors, and thus achieve the multiple objectives of the Sustainable Development Goals – for example, working within catchment area of a river to enhance agricultural productivity, flood defence, biodiversity and carbon storage. Climate change and agriculture are intertwined so production of food and climate mitigation can be a part of landscape management. The agricultural sector accounts for around 24% of anthropogenic emissions. Unlike other sectors that emit greenhouse gases, agriculture and forestry have the potential to mitigate climate change by reducing or removing
greenhouse gas emission Greenhouse gas emissions from human activities strengthen the greenhouse effect, contributing to climate change. Most is carbon dioxide from burning fossil fuels: coal, oil, and natural gas. The largest emitters include coal in China and ...
s, for example by
reforestation Reforestation (occasionally, reafforestation) is the natural or intentional restocking of existing forests and woodlands (forestation) that have been depleted, usually through deforestation, but also after clearcutting. Management A debat ...
and landscape restoration. Advocates of landscape management argue that '
climate-smart agriculture Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) (or climate resilient agriculture) is an integrated approach to managing landscapes to help adapt agricultural methods, livestock and crops to the effects of climate change and, where possible, counteract it by red ...
' and
REDD+ Redd is a Turkish rock band established in 1996 by tenor opera singer Doğan Duru and guitarist Berke Hatipoğlu under the name ''Ten''. They used to play at bars until they set up their own studio in 2004. Their first album, titled ''"50/50"'' ...
can draw on landscape management.


Regional


Germany

Because a large proportion of the biodiversity of Germany was able to invade from the south and east after human activities altered the landscape, maintaining such artificial landscapes is an integral part of nature conservation. The full name of the main nature conservation law in Germany, the ''Bundesnaturschutzgesetzes'', is thus titled in its entirety ''Gesetz über Naturschutz und Landschaftspflege'', where ''Landschaftspflege'' translates literally to "landscape maintenance" (see reference for more). Related concepts are ''Landschaftsschutz'', "landscape protection/conservation", and ''Landschaftsschutzgebiet'', a "nature preserve", or literally a (legally) "protected landscape area". The '' Deutscher Verband für Landschaftspflege'' is the main organisation which protects landscapes in Germany. It is an umbrella organisation which coordinates the regional landscape protection organisations of the different German states. Classically, there are four methods which can be done in order to conserve landscapes:Jedicke et al. (1996): Praktische Landschaftspflege – Grundlagen und Maßnahmen. Eugen Ulmer, Hohenheim maintenance, improvement, protectionBaals, C.(2010): Qualitätsmanagement in der aktiven Landschaftspflege – unter Berücksichtigung ihrer Entwicklung im Freistaat Bayern. Herbert Utz Verlag – Wissenschaft, München and redevelopment. The marketing of products such as meat from alpine meadows or apple juice from traditional ''Streuobstwiese'' can also be an important factor in conservation. Landscapes are maintained by three methods: biological - such as grazing by livestock, manually (although this is rare due to the high cost of labour) and commonly mechanically.


The Netherlands

''Staatsbosbeheer'', the Dutch governmental forest service, considers landscape management an important part of managing their lands. ''Landschapsbeheer Nederland'' is an umbrella organisation which promotes and helps fund the interests of the different provincial landscape management organisations, which between them include 75,000 volunteers and 110,000 hectares of protected nature reserves. Sustainable landscape management is being researched in the Netherlands.


Peru

An example of a producer movement managing a multi-functional landscape is the Potato Park in
Písac Písac or Pisac (possibly from Quechua for '' Nothoprocta'', also spelled ''p'isaqa'') is a Peruvian town in the Sacred Valley of the Incas. It is situated on the Vilcanota River. Pisac is most known for its Incan ruins and large market which a ...
, Peru, where local communities protect the ecological and cultural diversity of the 12,000ha landscape.


Sweden

In Sweden, the Swedish National Heritage Board, or ''Riksantikvarieämbetet'', is responsible for landscape conservation. Landscape conservation can be studied at the Department of Cultural Conservation (at Dacapo Mariestad) of the University of Gothenburg, in both Swedish and English.


Thailand

An example of cooperation between very different actors is from the
Doi Mae Salong Doi Mae Salong ( th , ดอยแม่สลอง) is a hill of Dan Lao range in Chiang Rai province, Thailand 6 km. from the border with Burma. This mountain rises in Mae Fa Luang District. Its summit is near the town of Santikhiri wh ...
watershed in northwest Thailand, a Military Reserved Area under the control of the
Royal Thai Armed Forces The Royal Thai Armed Forces (RTARF) ( th, กองทัพไทย; ) are the armed forces of the Kingdom of Thailand. The nominal head of the Thai Armed Forces (จอมทัพไทย; ) is the King of Thailand. The armed forces are ...
. Reforestation activities led to tension with local
hill tribes Hill people, also referred to as mountain people, is a general term for people who live in the hills and mountains. This includes all rugged land above and all land (including plateaus) above elevation. The climate is generally harsh, with s ...
. In response, an agreement was reached with them on land rights and use of different parts of the reserve.


United Kingdom

Among the leading exponents of UK landscape scale conservation are the
Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty An Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB; , AHNE) is an area of countryside in England, Wales, and Northern Ireland, that has been designated for conservation due to its significant landscape value. Areas are designated in recognition of thei ...
(AONB). There are 49 AONB in the UK. The
International Union for Conservation of Nature The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN; officially International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources) is an international organization working in the field of nature conservation and sustainable use of nat ...
has categorised these regions as "category 5 protected areas" and in 2005 claimed the AONB are administered using what the IUCN coined the "protected landscape approach"."Protected Areas in the United Kingdom" by Phillips, A. and Partington, R. in "The Protected Landscape Approach: Linking Nature, Culture and Community" Brown, J, Mitchell, N & Beresford, M (Eds) (2005) IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. pp 119-130. In Scotland there is a similar system of national scenic areas. The UK Biodiversity Action Plan protects semi-natural grasslands, among other habitats, which constitute landscapes maintained by low-intensity grazing. Agricultural environment schemes reward farmers and land managers financially for maintaining these habitats on registered agricultural land. Each of the four countries in the UK has its own individual scheme. Studies have been carried out across the UK looking at much wider range of habitats. In
Wales Wales ( cy, Cymru ) is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It is bordered by England to the east, the Irish Sea to the north and west, the Celtic Sea to the south west and the Bristol Channel to the south. It had a population in ...
the Pumlumon Large Area Conservation Project focusses on upland conservation in areas of marginal agriculture and forestry. The North
Somerset ( en, All The People of Somerset) , locator_map = , coordinates = , region = South West England , established_date = Ancient , established_by = , preceded_by = , origin = , lord_lieutenant_office =Lord Lieutenant of Somerset , lord_ ...
Levels and
Moors The term Moor, derived from the ancient Mauri, is an exonym first used by Christian Europeans to designate the Muslim inhabitants of the Maghreb, the Iberian Peninsula, Sicily and Malta during the Middle Ages. Moors are not a distinct or ...
Project addresses wetlands.


Other

Landscape approaches have been taken up by governments in for example the
Greater Mekong Subregion The Greater Mekong Subregion, (GMS) or just Greater Mekong, is a trans-national region of the Mekong River basin in Southeast Asia. The region is home to more than 300 million people. It came into being with the launch of a development program i ...
project and in Indonesia's climate change commitments, and by international research bodies such as the
Center for International Forestry Research The Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) is a non-profit scientific research organization that conducts research on the use and management of forests with a focus on tropical forests in developing countries. CIFOR, which merged wi ...
, which convenes the Global Landscapes Forum. The
Mount Kailash Mount Kailash (also Kailasa; ''Kangrinboqê'' or ''Gang Rinpoche''; Tibetan: གངས་རིན་པོ་ཆེ; ; sa, कैलास, ), is a mountain in the Ngari Prefecture, Tibet Autonomous Region of China. It has an altitude of ...
region is where the Indus River, the
Karnali River Karnali may refer to: Places in Nepal * Karnali Bridge, a bridge over the Karnali River in Nepal * Karnali Highway, a vital transport link in Nepal * Karnali Province, a federal province in Nepal * Karnali River, a river in Nepal and India origin ...
(a major tributary of the Ganges River), the Brahmaputra River and the Sutlej river systems originate. With assistance from the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, the three surrounding countries (China, India and Nepal) developed an integrated management approach to the different conservation and development issues within this landscape. Six countries in
West Africa West Africa or Western Africa is the westernmost region of Africa. The United Nations defines Western Africa as the 16 countries of Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Mali, M ...
in the
Volta River The Volta River is the main river system in the West African country of Ghana. It flows south into Ghana from the Bobo-Dioulasso highlands of Burkina Faso. The main parts of the river are the Black Volta, the White Volta, and the Red Volta. ...
basin using the ‘Mapping Ecosystems Services to Human well-being’ toolkit, use landscape modelling of alternative scenarios for the riparian buffer to make land-use decisions such as conserving hydrological
ecosystem services Ecosystem services are the many and varied benefits to humans provided by the natural environment and healthy ecosystems. Such ecosystems include, for example, agroecosystems, forest ecosystem, grassland ecosystems, and aquatic ecosystems. ...
and meeting national SDG commitments.


Variations


Ecoagriculture

In a 2001 article, soon expanded into a book, Scherr and McNeely introduced the term "ecoagriculture" to describe their vision of rural development while advancing the environment, claim that agriculture is the dominant influence on wild species and habitats, and point to a number of recent and potential future developments they identified as beneficial examples of land use. They incorporated the non-profit EcoAgriculture Partners in 2004 to promote this vision, with Scherr as President and CEO, and McNeely as an independent governing board member. Scherr and McNeely edited a second book in 2007. Ecoagriculture had three elements in 2003.


Integrated landscape management

In 2012 Scherr invented a new term, integrated landscape management, to describe her ideas for developing entire regions, not at just a farm or plot level. Integrated landscape management is a way of managing sustainable landscapes by bringing together multiple stakeholders with different land use objectives. The integrated approach claims to go beyond other approaches which focus on users of the land independently of each other, despite needing some of the same resources. It is promoted by the conservation NGOs
Worldwide Fund for Nature The World Wide Fund for Nature Inc. (WWF) is an international non-governmental organization founded in 1961 that works in the field of wilderness preservation and the reduction of human impact on the environment. It was formerly named the Wor ...
, Global Canopy Programme,
The Nature Conservancy The Nature Conservancy (TNC) is a global environmental organization headquartered in Arlington, Virginia. it works via affiliates or branches in 79 countries and territories, as well as across every state in the US. Founded in 1951, The Nat ...
, The Sustainable Trade Initiative, and EcoAgriculture Partners. Promoters claim that integrated landscape management will maximise collaboration in planning, policy development and action regarding the interdependent Sustainable Development Goals. It was defined by four elements in 2013: # Large scale: It plans land uses at the landscape scale. Wildlife population dynamics and watershed functions can only be understood at the landscape scale. Assuming short-term trade-offs may lead to long-term synergies, conducting analyses over long time periods is advocated. # Emphasis on synergies: It tries to exploit "synergies" among conservation, agricultural production, and rural livelihoods. # Emphasis on collaboration: It can not be achieved by individuals. The management of landscapes require different land managers with different environmental and socio-economic goals to achieve conservation, production, and livelihood goals at a landscape scale. # Importance of both conservation and agricultural production: bringing conservation into the agricultural and rural development discourse by highlighting the importance of ecosystem services in supporting agricultural production. It supports conservationists to more effectively conserve nature within and outside protected areas by working with the agricultural community by developing conservation-friendly livelihoods for rural land users. By 2016 it had five elements, namely: # stakeholders come together for cooperative dialogue and action; # they exchange information systematically and discuss perspectives to achieve a shared understanding of the landscape conditions, challenges and opportunities; # collaborative planning to develop an agreed action plan; # implementation of the plan; # monitoring and dialogue to adapt management.


Ecosystem approach

The
ecosystem approach The ecosystem approach is a conceptual framework for resolving ecosystem issues. The idea is to protect and manage the environment through the use of scientific reasoning. Another point of the ecosystem approach is preserving the Earth and its in ...
, promoted by the
Convention on Biological Diversity The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), known informally as the Biodiversity Convention, is a multilateral treaty. The Convention has three main goals: the conservation of biological diversity (or biodiversity); the sustainable use of its ...
, is a strategy for the integrated
ecosystem management Ecosystem management is an approach to natural resource management that aims to ensure the long-term sustainability and persistence of an ecosystems function and services while meeting socioeconomic, political, and cultural needs. Although indige ...
of land, water, and living resources for conservation and sustainability.


Ten Principles

This approach includes continual learning and
adaptive management Adaptive management, also known as adaptive resource management or adaptive environmental assessment and management, is a structured, iterative process of robust decision making in the face of uncertainty, with an aim to reducing uncertainty over ...
: including monitoring, the expectation that actions take place at multiple scales and that landscapes are multifunctional (e.g. supplying both goods, such as timber and food, and services, such as water and biodiversity protection). There are multiple stakeholders, and it assumes they have a common concern about the landscape, negotiate change with each other, and their rights and responsibilities are clear or will become clear.


Criticisms

A literature review identified five main barriers, as follows: # Terminology confusion: the variety of definitions creates confusion and resistance to engage. This resistance has emerged, often independently, from different fields. As stated by Scherr ''et al''.: “People are talking about the same thing ... This can lead to fragmentation of knowledge, unnecessary re-invention of ideas and practices, and inability to mobilize action at scale. ... this rich diversity is often simply overwhelming: they receive confusing messages” This problem is not unique to landscape approaches: since the 1970s it has been recognised that the constant emergence of new terminology can be harmful if they promote rhetoric at the expense of action. Because landscapes approaches develop from, and aim to integrate, a wide variety of sectors, makes it vulnerable to overlapping definitions and parallel concepts. Like other approaches to conservation, it may be a fad. # Time lags: substantial time and resources are invested in developing and planning, while resources are inadequate for implementation. # Operating silos: Each sector pursues its goals without giving consideration to the others. This may arise because of a lack in established objectives, operating norms and funding that effectively bridge different sectors. Working across sectors at the landscape scale requires a range of skills, different from those traditionally used by conservation organisations. # Engagement: Stakeholders may not desire to be engaged in the process, engagement may be trivial or inaccessible, and the discussions may hinder efficient decision-making. # Monitoring: There is lack of monitoring to check whether the objectives have been achieved.


See also

*
Agriculture in Concert with the Environment Agriculture in Concert with the Environment (ACE) is a program of the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), administered cooperatively with United States Department of Agriculture's Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education (SA ...
*
Agroecology Agroecology (US: a-grō-ē-ˈkä-lə-jē) is an academic discipline that studies ecological processes applied to agricultural production systems. Bringing ecological principles to bear can suggest new management approaches in agroecosystems. Th ...
* Agroforestry *
Conservation development Conservation development, also known as conservation design, is a controlled-growth land use development that adopts the principle for allowing limited sustainable development while protecting the area's natural environmental features in perpetu ...
*
Ecosystem approach The ecosystem approach is a conceptual framework for resolving ecosystem issues. The idea is to protect and manage the environment through the use of scientific reasoning. Another point of the ecosystem approach is preserving the Earth and its in ...
* Global biodiversity *
Landscape ecology Landscape ecology is the science of studying and improving relationships between ecological processes in the environment and particular ecosystems. This is done within a variety of landscape scales, development spatial patterns, and organizatio ...
* Landscape Institute *
Landscape urbanism Landscape urbanism is a theory of urban design arguing that the city is constructed of interconnected and ecologically rich horizontal field conditions, rather than the arrangement of objects and buildings. Landscape Urbanism, like Infrastructural ...
* Polder model * Sustainable forest management *
Sustainable landscaping Sustainable landscaping is a modern type of gardening or landscaping that takes the environmental issue of sustainability into account. According to Loehrlein in 2009 this includes design, construction and management of residential and commercial g ...
*
Topocide Topocide is the deliberate alteration or destruction of a locale through industrial expansion and change, so that its original landscape and character are destroyed. An alternative term is Domicide (from Latin ''domus'', meaning home or abode, ...
*
Watershed management Watershed management is the study of the relevant characteristics of a watershed aimed at the sustainable distribution of its resources and the process of creating and implementing plans, programs and projects to sustain and enhance watershed fu ...


References


External links


CIVILSCAPE - We are the landscape people!
(CIVILSCAPE)
Landscape EuropeLandscape Character Network
{{Authority control Landscape ecology Natural resource management Sustainable design Environmental conservation