Fumarole minerals are
mineral
In geology and mineralogy, a mineral or mineral species is, broadly speaking, a solid chemical compound with a fairly well-defined chemical composition and a specific crystal structure that occurs naturally in pure form.John P. Rafferty, ed. ( ...
s which are deposited by
fumarole
A fumarole (or fumerole) is a vent in the surface of the Earth or other rocky planet from which hot volcanic gases and vapors are emitted, without any accompanying liquids or solids. Fumaroles are characteristic of the late stages of volcani ...
exhalations. They form when gases and compounds
desublimate or precipitate out of condensates, forming mineral deposits. They are mostly associated with
volcano
A volcano is a rupture in the crust of a planetary-mass object, such as Earth, that allows hot lava, volcanic ash, and gases to escape from a magma chamber below the surface.
On Earth, volcanoes are most often found where tectonic plates are ...
es (as volcanic sublimate or fumarolic sublimate) following
deposition from
volcanic gas
Volcanic gases are gases given off by active (or, at times, by dormant) volcanoes. These include gases trapped in cavities (vesicles) in volcanic rocks, dissolved or dissociated gases in magma and lava, or gases emanating from lava, from volcanic ...
during an eruption or discharge from a
volcanic vent
A volcano is a rupture in the crust of a planetary-mass object, such as Earth, that allows hot lava, volcanic ash, and gases to escape from a magma chamber below the surface.
On Earth, volcanoes are most often found where tectonic plates are ...
or
fumarole
A fumarole (or fumerole) is a vent in the surface of the Earth or other rocky planet from which hot volcanic gases and vapors are emitted, without any accompanying liquids or solids. Fumaroles are characteristic of the late stages of volcani ...
,
but have been encountered on
burning coal deposits as well. They can be black or multicoloured and are often unstable upon exposure to the atmosphere.
Native sulfur
Sulfur (or sulphur in British English) is a chemical element with the symbol S and atomic number 16. It is abundant, multivalent and nonmetallic. Under normal conditions, sulfur atoms form cyclic octatomic molecules with a chemical formula ...
is a common sublimate mineral and various
halides
In chemistry, a halide (rarely halogenide) is a binary chemical compound, of which one part is a halogen atom and the other part is an element or radical that is less electronegative (or more electropositive) than the halogen, to make a fluor ...
,
sulfides
Sulfide (British English also sulphide) is an inorganic anion of sulfur with the chemical formula S2− or a compound containing one or more S2− ions. Solutions of sulfide salts are corrosive. ''Sulfide'' also refers to chemical compounds la ...
and
sulfates
The sulfate or sulphate ion is a polyatomic
A polyatomic ion, also known as a molecular ion, is a covalent bonded set of two or more atoms, or of a metal complex, that can be considered to behave as a single unit and that has a net charge t ...
occur in this environment associated with fumaroles and eruptions. A number of rare minerals are fumarole minerals, and at least 240 such minerals are known from
Tolbachik
Tolbachik (russian: Толбачик) is a complex volcano, volcanic complex on the Kamchatka Peninsula in the far east of Russia. It consists of two volcanoes, Plosky (''flat'') Tolbachik (3,085 m) and Ostry (''sharp'') Tolbachik (3,682 m), whic ...
volcano in
Kamchatka
The Kamchatka Peninsula (russian: полуостров Камчатка, Poluostrov Kamchatka, ) is a peninsula in the Russian Far East, with an area of about . The Pacific Ocean and the Sea of Okhotsk make up the peninsula's eastern and wes ...
, Russia. Other volcanoes where individual fumarole minerals have been discovered are
Vulcano
Vulcano ( scn, Vurcanu) or Vulcan is a small volcanic island belonging to Italy in the Tyrrhenian Sea, about north of Sicily and located at the southernmost end of the seven Aeolian Islands. The island is known for its volcanic activity and c ...
in Italy and
Bezymyanny also in Russia.
Origin and appearance
In
fumarole
A fumarole (or fumerole) is a vent in the surface of the Earth or other rocky planet from which hot volcanic gases and vapors are emitted, without any accompanying liquids or solids. Fumaroles are characteristic of the late stages of volcani ...
s, minerals either form through
desublimation
Deposition is the phase transition in which gas transforms into solid without passing through the liquid phase. Deposition is a thermodynamic process. The reverse of deposition is sublimation and hence sometimes deposition is called desublimati ...
from fumarole gases or through interactions of fumarole gases with
country rock
Country rock is a genre of music which fuses rock and country. It was developed by rock musicians who began to record country-flavored records in the late 1960s and early 1970s. These musicians recorded rock records using country themes, vocal s ...
. The former are known as sublimates and the latter as incrustations. Some such deposits may also form through the interaction between liquid fumarole condensates and country rock and are not always formed by desublimation. Multiple cycles of primary deposition and secondary alteration may occur. Volcanic gases such as
hydrogen chloride
The compound hydrogen chloride has the chemical formula and as such is a hydrogen halide. At room temperature, it is a colourless gas, which forms white fumes of hydrochloric acid upon contact with atmospheric water vapor. Hydrogen chloride ga ...
,
hydrogen fluoride
Hydrogen fluoride (fluorane) is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula . This colorless gas or liquid is the principal industrial source of fluorine, often as an aqueous solution called hydrofluoric acid. It is an important feedstock i ...
,
sulfur dioxide
Sulfur dioxide (IUPAC-recommended spelling) or sulphur dioxide (traditional Commonwealth English) is the chemical compound with the formula . It is a toxic gas responsible for the odor of burnt matches. It is released naturally by volcanic activ ...
and water can transport large amounts of elements, thus contributing to
geochemical cycle In Earth science, a geochemical cycle is the pathway that chemical elements take in the surface and crust of the Earth. The term " geochemical" tells us that geological and chemical factors are all included. The migration of heated and compressed ...
s on the surface and the formation of
ore deposit
Ore is natural rock or sediment that contains one or more valuable minerals, typically containing metals, that can be mined, treated and sold at a profit.Encyclopædia Britannica. "Ore". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 7 April 2 ...
s at depth. When these exhalations reach the atmosphere and cool, the minerals contained in them tend to precipitate out.
Volcanic fumarole minerals (as volcanic sublimate or fumarolic sublimate) form following
deposition from
volcanic gas
Volcanic gases are gases given off by active (or, at times, by dormant) volcanoes. These include gases trapped in cavities (vesicles) in volcanic rocks, dissolved or dissociated gases in magma and lava, or gases emanating from lava, from volcanic ...
during an eruption or discharge from a
volcanic vent
A volcano is a rupture in the crust of a planetary-mass object, such as Earth, that allows hot lava, volcanic ash, and gases to escape from a magma chamber below the surface.
On Earth, volcanoes are most often found where tectonic plates are ...
or
fumarole
A fumarole (or fumerole) is a vent in the surface of the Earth or other rocky planet from which hot volcanic gases and vapors are emitted, without any accompanying liquids or solids. Fumaroles are characteristic of the late stages of volcani ...
.
Burning
coal
Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock, formed as rock strata called coal seams. Coal is mostly carbon with variable amounts of other elements, chiefly hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen.
Coal is formed when dea ...
produces enough heat to partially melt rocks and to generate exhalations of the mineral components embedded in coal.
Coal seam fire
A coal-seam fire is a burning of an outcrop or underground coal seam. Most coal-seam fires exhibit smouldering combustion, particularly underground coal-seam fires, because of limited atmospheric oxygen availability. Coal-seam fire instances ...
s often deposit fumarolic minerals over areas of a few square metres which can be detected by airborne
hyperspectral
Hyperspectral imaging collects and processes information from across the electromagnetic spectrum. The goal of hyperspectral imaging is to obtain the spectrum for each pixel in the image of a scene, with the purpose of finding objects, identifyi ...
imagery.
Coal fires can mobilize toxic
trace element
__NOTOC__
A trace element, also called minor element, is a chemical element whose concentration (or other measure of amount) is very low (a "trace amount"). They are classified into two groups: essential and non-essential. Essential trace elements ...
s. Fumarole minerals have also been found in
Gusev crater
Gusev is a crater on the planet Mars and is located at and is in the Aeolis quadrangle. The crater is about 166 kilometers in diameter and formed approximately three to four billion years ago. It was named after Russian astronomer Matvey Gusev ...
on
Mars
Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun and the second-smallest planet in the Solar System, only being larger than Mercury (planet), Mercury. In the English language, Mars is named for the Mars (mythology), Roman god of war. Mars is a terr ...
.
Fumarole deposits have been used to identify
heat flow
Heat transfer is a discipline of thermal engineering that concerns the generation, use, conversion, and exchange of thermal energy (heat) between physical systems. Heat transfer is classified into various mechanisms, such as thermal conduction, ...
anomalies and to reconstruct
ore genesis
Various theories of ore genesis explain how the various types of mineral deposits form within Earth's crust. Ore-genesis theories vary depending on the mineral or commodity examined.
Ore-genesis theories generally involve three components: sour ...
processes.
Fumarole exhalations are often black or multicoloured, and tend to develop typical zonations. Common components are
sulfur
Sulfur (or sulphur in British English) is a chemical element with the symbol S and atomic number 16. It is abundant, multivalent and nonmetallic. Under normal conditions, sulfur atoms form cyclic octatomic molecules with a chemical formula ...
compounds and elemental sulfur.
In the
Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes
The Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes is a valley within Katmai National Park and Preserve in Alaska which is filled with ash flow from the eruption of Novarupta on June 6–8, 1912.
Following the eruption, thousands of fumaroles vented steam from ...
in Alaska the fumarole minerals form both thin crusts in the vents, mixtures with tephra deposits and coloured outcrops and mounds at the sites of former fumaroles. Deposits at Tolbachik volcano have shapes likef crusts, small plates
and globules.
Typical components of fumarole minerals are
halide
In chemistry, a halide (rarely halogenide) is a binary chemical compound, of which one part is a halogen atom and the other part is an element or radical that is less electronegative (or more electropositive) than the halogen, to make a fluor ...
s,
oxide
An oxide () is a chemical compound that contains at least one oxygen atom and one other element in its chemical formula. "Oxide" itself is the dianion of oxygen, an O2– (molecular) ion. with oxygen in the oxidation state of −2. Most of the E ...
s,
sulfate
The sulfate or sulphate ion is a polyatomic anion with the empirical formula . Salts, acid derivatives, and peroxides of sulfate are widely used in industry. Sulfates occur widely in everyday life. Sulfates are salts of sulfuric acid and many ar ...
s and
sulfide
Sulfide (British English also sulphide) is an inorganic anion of sulfur with the chemical formula S2− or a compound containing one or more S2− ions. Solutions of sulfide salts are corrosive. ''Sulfide'' also refers to chemical compounds lar ...
s, with the exact composition different between volcanoes, individual vents at volcanoes and different temperatures of the same vent. Fumarolic minerals are often unstable and are eroded or decompose,
in the
Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes
The Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes is a valley within Katmai National Park and Preserve in Alaska which is filled with ash flow from the eruption of Novarupta on June 6–8, 1912.
Following the eruption, thousands of fumaroles vented steam from ...
in Alaska it took less than a century for almost all fumarole mineral deposits to disappear
although others remained and were later used to identify former fumarole vents. Thus, many fumarole minerals are rare and many rare minerals are fumarole minerals.
Some fumarolic minerals have been found in extinct
Cenozoic
The Cenozoic ( ; ) is Earth's current geological era, representing the last 66million years of Earth's history. It is characterised by the dominance of mammals, birds and flowering plants, a cooling and drying climate, and the current configura ...
volcanoes and could exist in
Archean
The Archean Eon ( , also spelled Archaean or Archæan) is the second of four geologic eons of Earth's history, representing the time from . The Archean was preceded by the Hadean Eon and followed by the Proterozoic.
The Earth
Earth ...
rocks as well, however. Unique textures occur such as bubble-like structures, which may form when the liquid that deposits the minerals evaporates.
Volcanoes
Research on the mineralogy of fumarole minerals has been conducted in Central America, Russia and Europe, with detailed publications on
Izalco
Izalco (in Nawat: ''Itzalku'') is a municipality in the Sonsonate department of El Salvador.
Volcan Izalco is an icon of the country of El Salvador, a very young Volcano on the flank of Santa Ana volcano. From when it was born in 1770 until 196 ...
in
El Salvador
El Salvador (; , meaning " The Saviour"), officially the Republic of El Salvador ( es, República de El Salvador), is a country in Central America. It is bordered on the northeast by Honduras, on the northwest by Guatemala, and on the south b ...
,
Eldfell
Eldfell is a volcanic cone just over high on the Icelandic island of Heimaey. It formed in a volcanic eruption, which began without warning on the eastern side of Heimaey, in the Westman Islands, on 23 January 1973. The name means ''Hill of Fir ...
in
Iceland
Iceland ( is, Ísland; ) is a Nordic island country in the North Atlantic Ocean and in the Arctic Ocean. Iceland is the most sparsely populated country in Europe. Iceland's capital and largest city is Reykjavík, which (along with its s ...
,
Vesuvius
Mount Vesuvius ( ; it, Vesuvio ; nap, 'O Vesuvio , also or ; la, Vesuvius , also , or ) is a somma-stratovolcano located on the Gulf of Naples
The Gulf of Naples (), also called the Bay of Naples, is a roughly 15-kilometer-wide (9 ...
where research goes back to the early 19th century
and
Vulcano
Vulcano ( scn, Vurcanu) or Vulcan is a small volcanic island belonging to Italy in the Tyrrhenian Sea, about north of Sicily and located at the southernmost end of the seven Aeolian Islands. The island is known for its volcanic activity and c ...
in Italy,
Mount Usu
is an active stratovolcano in the Shikotsu-Toya National Park, Hokkaido, Japan. It has erupted four times since 1900: in 1910 (which created Meiji-shinzan 神沼克伊,小山悦郎 ''日本の火山を科学する 日本列島津々浦々、 ...
in Japan,
Kudryavy and
Tolbachik
Tolbachik (russian: Толбачик) is a complex volcano, volcanic complex on the Kamchatka Peninsula in the far east of Russia. It consists of two volcanoes, Plosky (''flat'') Tolbachik (3,085 m) and Ostry (''sharp'') Tolbachik (3,682 m), whic ...
in Russia,
Kilauea and
Mount St. Helens
Mount St. Helens (known as Lawetlat'la to the indigenous Cowlitz people, and Loowit or Louwala-Clough to the Klickitat) is an active stratovolcano located in Skamania County, Washington, in the Pacific Northwest region of the United St ...
in the United States.
Sulfur
Sulfur (or sulphur in British English) is a chemical element with the symbol S and atomic number 16. It is abundant, multivalent and nonmetallic. Under normal conditions, sulfur atoms form cyclic octatomic molecules with a chemical formula ...
deposits containing fumarolic desublimates are found at
Guallatiri
Guallatiri is a high volcano in Chile. It is located southwest of the Nevados de Quimsachata volcanic group and is sometimes considered to be part of that group. It is a stratovolcano with numerous fumaroles around the summit. The summit may b ...
and
Lastarria
Lastarria is a high stratovolcano that lies on the border between Chile and Argentina. It is remote and the surroundings are uninhabited but can be reached through an unpaved road. The volcano is part of the Central Volcanic Zone, one of the fou ...
volcanoes in the
Central Volcanic Zone
The Andean Volcanic Belt is a major volcanic belt along the Andean cordillera in Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. It is formed as a result of subduction of the Nazca Plate and Antarctic Plate underneath the South Americ ...
of the Andes.
Kudryavy volcano in the
Kurils
The Kuril Islands or Kurile Islands (; rus, Кури́льские острова́, r=Kuril'skiye ostrova, p=kʊˈrʲilʲskʲɪjə ɐstrɐˈva; Japanese: or ) are a volcanic archipelago currently administered as part of Sakhalin Oblast in the ...
is particularly known for the numerous mineralizations its fumaroles have produced and for the presence of
rhenium
Rhenium is a chemical element with the symbol Re and atomic number 75. It is a silvery-gray, heavy, third-row transition metal in group 7 of the periodic table. With an estimated average concentration of 1 part per billion (ppb), rhenium is one ...
-rich precipitates. Among the elements found there are
copper
Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu (from la, cuprum) and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of pure copper has a pinkis ...
-
gold
Gold is a chemical element with the symbol Au (from la, aurum) and atomic number 79. This makes it one of the higher atomic number elements that occur naturally. It is a bright, slightly orange-yellow, dense, soft, malleable, and ductile met ...
-
silver
Silver is a chemical element with the Symbol (chemistry), symbol Ag (from the Latin ', derived from the Proto-Indo-European wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/h₂erǵ-, ''h₂erǵ'': "shiny" or "white") and atomic number 47. A soft, whi ...
alloys. Various
sulfate
The sulfate or sulphate ion is a polyatomic anion with the empirical formula . Salts, acid derivatives, and peroxides of sulfate are widely used in industry. Sulfates occur widely in everyday life. Sulfates are salts of sulfuric acid and many ar ...
-based minerals have been identified at the
Salton Buttes
The Salton Buttes are a group of volcanoes in California, on the Salton Sea. They consist of a -long row of five lava domes, named Mullet Island, North Red Hill, Obsidian Butte, Rock Hill and South Red Hill. They are closely associated with a f ...
in
California
California is a U.S. state, state in the Western United States, located along the West Coast of the United States, Pacific Coast. With nearly 39.2million residents across a total area of approximately , it is the List of states and territori ...
.
Fumarolic minerals have also been reported from the
Western Andes in Bolivia.
The most fumarolic minerals have been found at
Tolbachik
Tolbachik (russian: Толбачик) is a complex volcano, volcanic complex on the Kamchatka Peninsula in the far east of Russia. It consists of two volcanoes, Plosky (''flat'') Tolbachik (3,085 m) and Ostry (''sharp'') Tolbachik (3,682 m), whic ...
volcano in
Kamchatka
The Kamchatka Peninsula (russian: полуостров Камчатка, Poluostrov Kamchatka, ) is a peninsula in the Russian Far East, with an area of about . The Pacific Ocean and the Sea of Okhotsk make up the peninsula's eastern and wes ...
, Russia; Tolbachik also has one of the most diverse mineral assemblages in the world. The high temperature and oxidizing regime of exhalations which transport the elements at Tolbachik facilitates mineral deposition. A large assemblage of
silicate
In chemistry, a silicate is any member of a family of polyatomic anions consisting of silicon and oxygen, usually with the general formula , where . The family includes orthosilicate (), metasilicate (), and pyrosilicate (, ). The name is al ...
s and a number of
copper
Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu (from la, cuprum) and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of pure copper has a pinkis ...
-
zinc
Zinc is a chemical element with the symbol Zn and atomic number 30. Zinc is a slightly brittle metal at room temperature and has a shiny-greyish appearance when oxidation is removed. It is the first element in group 12 (IIB) of the periodi ...
selenite
Selenite may refer to:
Substances containing selenium
*A selenium-containing anion or ionic compound with the SeO32− anion:
**Selenite (ion), anion is a selenium oxoanion with the chemical formula SeO32−
***Selenous acid, the conjugate acid, w ...
chloride
The chloride ion is the anion (negatively charged ion) Cl−. It is formed when the element chlorine (a halogen) gains an electron or when a compound such as hydrogen chloride is dissolved in water or other polar solvents. Chloride salts ...
s
and copper-based fumarolic minerals were discovered at
Tolbachik
Tolbachik (russian: Толбачик) is a complex volcano, volcanic complex on the Kamchatka Peninsula in the far east of Russia. It consists of two volcanoes, Plosky (''flat'') Tolbachik (3,085 m) and Ostry (''sharp'') Tolbachik (3,682 m), whic ...
volcano,
Kamchatka
The Kamchatka Peninsula (russian: полуостров Камчатка, Poluostrov Kamchatka, ) is a peninsula in the Russian Far East, with an area of about . The Pacific Ocean and the Sea of Okhotsk make up the peninsula's eastern and wes ...
,
Russia
Russia (, , ), or the Russian Federation, is a List of transcontinental countries, transcontinental country spanning Eastern Europe and North Asia, Northern Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, largest country in the ...
. Many of these include polymeric units. About 240 minerals have been identified at Tolbachik, close to a record,
40 of them only incompletely studied. Elemental gold linked to chlorides at Tolbachik has been interpreted as gold transported by chlorine-rich oxidizing environments.
Specimens of fumarole minerals from Tolbachik and Kudryavy are hosted by the
Fersman Mineralogical Museum
)
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, logo =
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, image = Fersman Mineralogical Museum.JPG
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, a ...
in
Moscow
Moscow ( , US chiefly ; rus, links=no, Москва, r=Moskva, p=mɐskˈva, a=Москва.ogg) is the capital and largest city of Russia. The city stands on the Moskva River in Central Russia, with a population estimated at 13.0 million ...
.
Historical
lava flow
Lava is molten or partially molten rock (magma) that has been expelled from the interior of a terrestrial planet (such as Earth) or a moon onto its surface. Lava may be erupted at a volcano or through a fracture in the crust, on land or und ...
s of
Vesuvius
Mount Vesuvius ( ; it, Vesuvio ; nap, 'O Vesuvio , also or ; la, Vesuvius , also , or ) is a somma-stratovolcano located on the Gulf of Naples
The Gulf of Naples (), also called the Bay of Naples, is a roughly 15-kilometer-wide (9 ...
volcano contain fumarolic minerals.
Various fumarole minerals have been discovered at
Vulcano
Vulcano ( scn, Vurcanu) or Vulcan is a small volcanic island belonging to Italy in the Tyrrhenian Sea, about north of Sicily and located at the southernmost end of the seven Aeolian Islands. The island is known for its volcanic activity and c ...
volcano in Italy, where the mineralogy has changed since 1987 and 1990 due to hotter fumarole exhalations, yielding increased
sulfate
The sulfate or sulphate ion is a polyatomic anion with the empirical formula . Salts, acid derivatives, and peroxides of sulfate are widely used in industry. Sulfates occur widely in everyday life. Sulfates are salts of sulfuric acid and many ar ...
and sulfur salt concentrations. Fumarolic minerals have also been encountered at
mud volcano
A mud volcano or mud dome is a landform created by the eruption of mud or slurries, water and gases. Several geological processes may cause the formation of mud volcanoes. Mud volcanoes are not true igneous volcanoes as they do not produce lava ...
es in
Siberia
Siberia ( ; rus, Сибирь, r=Sibir', p=sʲɪˈbʲirʲ, a=Ru-Сибирь.ogg) is an extensive geographical region, constituting all of North Asia, from the Ural Mountains in the west to the Pacific Ocean in the east. It has been a part of ...
.
Minerals discovered in fumarole areas
List of fumarole minerals with discovery site and year:
*
Abramovite
Abramovite is a very rare mineral from the sulfides and sulfosalt categories. It has the chemical formula Pb2 Sn In Bi S7. It occurs as tiny elongated lamellar-shaped crystals, up 1 mm × 0.2 mm in size, and is characterized by its no ...
(), Kudryavy, Russia. Reported in 2008.
* Allochalcoselite ().
* Aluminocoquimbite (), Grotta del' Alume, Vulcano, Italy. Reported in 2010.
* Aluminopyracmonite (), La Fossa, Vulcano, Italy. Reported in 2018.
* Arsmirandite (), Arsenatnaya fumarole, Tolbachik, Russia. Discovered in 2020.
* Axelite (), Arsenatnaya fumarole, Tolbachik, Russia. Reported in 2022.
* Baliczunicite (), La Fossa, Vulcano, Italy. Discovered in 2013.
* Belomarinaite (), Toludskoe lava field, Tolbachik, Russia. First described in 2019.
* Belousovite (), Yadovitaya fumarole, Second Scoria Cone, Tolbachik, Russia. Reported in 2018.
* Blossite (), Izalco, El Salvador. Reported in 1987.
* Bubnovaite (), Naboko cone, Tolbachik, Russia.
*
Cadmoindite
Cadmoindite (CdIn2S4) is a rare cadmium indium sulfide mineral discovered in Siberia around the vent of a high-temperature (450–600 °C) fumarole at the Kudriavy volcano, Iturup Island in the Kuril Islands. It has also been reported from the ...
(), Kudryavy, Russia. Reported in 2004.
* Calciolangbeinite (), Arsenatnaya fumarole, Tolbachik, Russia. Reported in 2022.
* Campostriniite (), La Fossa, Vulcano, Italy. Reported in 2015.
* Cannizzarite (), La Fossa, Vulcano, Italy.
* Cesiodymite (), Second Scoria Cone, Tolbachik, Russia. Reported in 2018.
* Chubarovite (), Arsenatnaya fumarole, Tolbachik, Russia. Reported in 2015.
* Cryptocalcite (), Second Scoria Cone, Tolbachik, Russia. Reported in 2018.
* Cupromolybdite (), New Tolbachik scoria cones, Tolbachik, Russia. Reported in 2012.
* D'ansite () Vesuvius and Vulcano, Italy. Reported in 2012.
* Demartinite (), La Fossa, Vulcano, Italy. Reported in 2007.
* Demicheleite ( and ), La Fossa, Vulcano, Italy. Reported in 2010 and 2008, respectively.
* Dobrovolskyite (), Great Tolbachik fissure eruption, Kamchatka peninsula, Russia. Announced in 2021.
* Elasmochloite ().
* Eldfellite ().
* Ermakovite (), Fan-Yagnob coal deposit,
Tajikistan
Tajikistan (, ; tg, Тоҷикистон, Tojikiston; russian: Таджикистан, Tadzhikistan), officially the Republic of Tajikistan ( tg, Ҷумҳурии Тоҷикистон, Jumhurii Tojikiston), is a landlocked country in Centr ...
. Reported in 2022.
* Grigorievite, (), Second Scoria Cone, Tolbachik, Russia. Formally approved in 2015.
*
Hermannjahnite
Hermannjahnite is a rare sulfate mineral with the relatively simple formula CuZn(SO4)2. It is one of many fumarolic minerals discovered on the Tolbachik volcano.Siidra, O.I., Nazarchuk, E.V., Agakhanov, A.A., Lukina, E.A., Vergasova, L.P., Filat ...
(, Naboko scoria cone, Tolbachik, Russia. Reported in 2018.
* Karpovite (, First Cinder Cone, Tolbachik, Russia. Reported in 2018.
* Knasibfite (), La Fossa, Vulcano, Italy. Reported in 2008.
* Koksharovite, (),
Bezymyanny, Russia. Formally approved in 2015.
* Kudriavite (), Kudryavy, Russia. Reported in 2004.
* Lehmannite (), Arsenatnaya fumarole, Tolbachik. Discovered in 2020.
* Leonardsenite (), Eldfell,
Heimaey
Heimaey (), is an Icelandic island. At , it is the largest island in the Vestmannaeyjar archipelago, and the largest and most populated island off the Icelandic coast. Heimaey is off the south coast of Iceland. It is the only populated isla ...
, Iceland. Formally approved in 2015.
* Lesyukite (), First Cone, Tolbachik, Russia. Publication in 2007 or earlier.
*
Lucabindiite (), La Fossa, Vulcano, Italy. Described in 2010–2011.
* Majzlanite (), Yadovitaya fumarole, Tolbachik, Russia. Described in 2019.
* Medvedevite (), Toludskoe lava field, Tolbachik, Russia. Found in 2020.
* Nishanbaevite (), Arsenatnaya fumarole, Tolbachik, Russia. Described in 2022.
* Oskarssonite, (),
Eldfell
Eldfell is a volcanic cone just over high on the Icelandic island of Heimaey. It formed in a volcanic eruption, which began without warning on the eastern side of Heimaey, in the Westman Islands, on 23 January 1973. The name means ''Hill of Fir ...
, Iceland. Reported in 2018.
* Ozerovaite (), Second Cinder Cone, Tolbachik, Russia. Reported in 2019.
* Paradimorphite (), Solfatara, Campi Flegrei, Italy. Reported in 2022, a variant of
* Parageorgbokiite (), Yadovitaya fumarole, Tolbachik, Russia. Described in 2007.
* Parascandolaite (), Vesuvius, Italy. Published in 2014.
* Parawulffite (), Arsenatnaya fumarole, Tolbachik, Russia. Described in 2014.
*
Petrovite
Petrovite is a blue and green mineral, with the chemical formula of Na10CaCu2(SO4)8. It contains atoms of oxygen (O), sodium (Na), sulphur (S), calcium (Ca) and copper (Cu) in a porous framework. It has potential as a cathode material in sodium-io ...
(), Second Scoria Cone, Tolbachik, Russia. Formally approved in 2020.
* Pliniusite (), Tolbachik, Russia. Reported in 2022.
* Prewittite (), Second Scoria Cone, Tolbachik, Russia. Reported in 2013.
* Pseudolyonsite (), New Tolbachik scoria cones, Tolbachik, Russia. Reported in 2011.
* Puninite (), Second scoria cone, Tolbachik, Russia. Published in 2017.
* Rhabdoborite (), Arsenatnaya fumarole, Tolbachik, Russia. Reported in 2020.
* Russoite (,
Solfatara
A fumarole (or fumerole) is a vent in the surface of the Earth or other rocky planet from which hot volcanic gases and vapors are emitted, without any accompanying liquids or solids. Fumaroles are characteristic of the late stages of volcani ...
,
Phlegrean Fields
The Phlegraean Fields ( it, Campi Flegrei ; nap, Campe Flegree, from Ancient Greek 'to burn') is a large region of supervolcanic calderas situated to the west of Naples, Italy. It was declared a regional park in 2003. The area of the calde ...
, Italy. Published in 2018.
* Sbacchiite (), Vesuvius, Italy. Reported in 2019.
* Shcherbinaite (),
Izalco
Izalco (in Nawat: ''Itzalku'') is a municipality in the Sonsonate department of El Salvador.
Volcan Izalco is an icon of the country of El Salvador, a very young Volcano on the flank of Santa Ana volcano. From when it was born in 1770 until 196 ...
,
El Salvador
El Salvador (; , meaning " The Saviour"), officially the Republic of El Salvador ( es, República de El Salvador), is a country in Central America. It is bordered on the northeast by Honduras, on the northwest by Guatemala, and on the south b ...
. Reported in 1983
and named after another discovery in Russia.
* Stoiberite (), "Y fumarole", Izalco, El Salvador. Reported in 1979.
* Therasiaite (, La Fossa, Vulcano, Italy. Reported in 2014.
* Thermessaite (, La Fossa, Vulcano, Italy. Announced in 2021.
* Topsøeite (),
Hekla
Hekla (), or Hecla, is a stratovolcano in the south of Iceland with a height of . Hekla is one of Iceland's most active volcanoes; over 20 eruptions have occurred in and around the volcano since 874. During the Middle Ages, the Icelandic Norse ...
, Iceland. Announced in 2018.
*
Wulffite
Wulffite is an alkali copper sulfate mineral with the chemical formula K3 Na Cu4 O2( S O4)4, in the sulfate category of minerals. It was recently discovered in Kamchatka, Russia at the Tolbachik volcano in 2012. It was named for Russian crystallo ...
(), Arsenatnaya fumarole, Tolbachik, Russia. Described in 2014.
* Vasilseverginite (), Arsenatnaya fumarole, Tolbachik, Russia. Announced in 2021.
* Wrightite (), Second Scoria Cone, Tolbachik, Russia. Discovered in 1983.
* Yavapaiite ().
* Ziminaite (), Bezymyanny, Russia. Reported in 2018.
* Zincobradaczekite (), Yadovitaya fumarole, Tolbachik, Russia. Described in 2020.
Scanning electron microscope images of fumarole minerals">
File:Color SEM 5.jpg, Fumarole minerals in natural colours
File:Color SEM 1.jpg, Fumarole minerals in natural colours, Mutnovsky, Kamchatka
File:Color SEM 6.jpg, Fumarole minerals in natural colours, Tolbachik, Kamchatka
File:RM2447-Belomarinaite.jpg, Non-SEM photo of belomarinaite from Tolbachik, Kamchatka
References
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Fumaroles
Minerals