HOME

TheInfoList



OR:

Eviction in the United States refers to the pattern of tenant removal by landlords in the United States. In an
eviction Eviction is the removal of a tenant from rental property by the landlord. In some jurisdictions it may also involve the removal of persons from premises that were foreclosed by a mortgagee (often, the prior owners who defaulted on a mortgag ...
process, landlords forcibly remove tenants from their place of residence and reclaim the property."Eviction". 2022. LII / Legal Information Institute. https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/eviction. Landlords may decide to evict tenants who have failed to pay rent, violated lease terms, or possess an expired lease. Landlords may also choose not to renew a tenant's lease, however, this does not constitute an eviction. In the United States, eviction procedures, landlord rights, and tenant protections vary by state and locality. Historically, the United States has seen changes in domestic eviction rates during periods of major socio-political and economic turmoil—including the
Great Depression The Great Depression (19291939) was an economic shock that impacted most countries across the world. It was a period of economic depression that became evident after a major fall in stock prices in the United States. The economic contagio ...
, the 2008 Recession, and the
Covid-19 pandemic The COVID-19 pandemic, also known as the coronavirus pandemic, is an ongoing global pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). The novel virus was first identif ...
. High eviction rates are driven by affordable housing shortages and rising housing costs. Across the United States, low-income and disadvantaged neighborhoods have disproportionately higher eviction rates. Certain demographics—including low income renters, Black and Hispanic renters, women, and people with children—are also at a greater risk of eviction. Additionally, eviction filings remain on renters' public records. This can make it more difficult for renters to access future housing, since most landlords will not rent to a tenant with a history of eviction. Eviction and housing instability are also linked to many negative health and life outcomes, including
homelessness Homelessness or houselessness – also known as a state of being unhoused or unsheltered – is the condition of lacking stable, safe, and adequate housing. People can be categorized as homeless if they are: * living on the streets, also kn ...
,
poverty Poverty is the state of having few material possessions or little income. Poverty can have diverse social, economic, and political causes and effects. When evaluating poverty in ...
, and poor mental and
physical health Health, according to the World Health Organization, is "a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease and infirmity".World Health Organization. (2006)''Constitution of the World Health Organi ...
. Unfortunately, the United States eviction crisis is not fully understood due to poorly documented eviction records and limited research on the topic. Landlord-initiated expulsion of tenants is not officially tracked or monitored by the
federal government A federation (also known as a federal state) is a political entity characterized by a union of partially self-governing provinces, states, or other regions under a central federal government (federalism). In a federation, the self-governin ...
and has not been subject to comprehensive analysis. In 2016, sociologist
Matthew Desmond Matthew Desmond is a sociologist and the Maurice P. During Professor of Sociology at Princeton University, where he is also the principal investigator of the Eviction Lab. Desmond was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 2022. Educ ...
published Evicted: Poverty and Profit in the American City which brought wide-scale attention to the United States eviction crisis.Desmond, Matthew. ''Evicted: Poverty and profit in the American city''. Crown, 2016. In his book, Desmond researches and analyzes eviction patterns in improvised Milwaukee neighborhoods. Desmond also emphasizes racial and gender disparities in eviction rates and the subsequent social cost on these evictees. In 2017, Desmond establishe
The Eviction Lab
an interactive website that publicizes data on eviction trends across the United States.


History


19th Century


The Trail of Tears

''See main article:
Trail of Tears The Trail of Tears was an ethnic cleansing and forced displacement of approximately 60,000 people of the "Five Civilized Tribes" between 1830 and 1850 by the United States government. As part of the Indian removal, members of the Cherokee, ...
'' The Trail of Tears refers to the mass eviction of around 100,000 American Indians from their homelands, which stretched across Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Tennessee, and Alabama. The majority of evictions occurred after the passage of the United States
Indian Removal Act of 1830 The Indian Removal Act was signed into law on May 28, 1830, by United States President Andrew Jackson. The law, as described by Congress, provided "for an exchange of lands with the Indians residing in any of the states or territories, and for ...
. In 1832, the supreme court ruled on the case '' Worcester v. Georgia'', stipulating that the evacuation of the American Indian tribes was unconstitutional. However, because the president at the time,
Andrew Jackson Andrew Jackson (March 15, 1767 – June 8, 1845) was an American lawyer, planter, general, and statesman who served as the seventh president of the United States from 1829 to 1837. Before being elected to the presidency, he gained fame as ...
, did not agree with the ruling, it was not enforced. The evacuation of natives in the southern states continued. In 1834, the
Treaty of New Echota The Treaty of New Echota was a treaty signed on December 29, 1835, in New Echota, Georgia, by officials of the United States government and representatives of a minority Cherokee political faction, the Treaty Party. The treaty established terms ...
was passed. This required the
Cherokee The Cherokee (; chr, ᎠᏂᏴᏫᏯᎢ, translit=Aniyvwiyaʔi or Anigiduwagi, or chr, ᏣᎳᎩ, links=no, translit=Tsalagi) are one of the indigenous peoples of the Southeastern Woodlands of the United States. Prior to the 18th century, t ...
tribe to move to Oklahoma within two years for a compensation of five million dollars. However, when many Cherokees remained in 1838, they were forcibly removed by the military with deaths totaling over 4,000 people.


20th Century


The Great Depression

''See main article:
Great Depression in the United States In the United States, the Great Depression began with the Wall Street Crash of October 1929 and then spread worldwide. The nadir came in 1931–1933, and recovery came in 1940. The stock market crash marked the beginning of a decade of high un ...
'' During the
Great Depression The Great Depression (19291939) was an economic shock that impacted most countries across the world. It was a period of economic depression that became evident after a major fall in stock prices in the United States. The economic contagio ...
, eviction rates increased significantly due to high unemployment rates. In 1933, U.S. unemployment rates reached an all time high of 24.9%.the US. These evictions led to the Great Rent Strike War of 1932. During the strike, which started in
The Bronx The Bronx () is a borough of New York City, coextensive with Bronx County, in the state of New York. It is south of Westchester County; north and east of the New York City borough of Manhattan, across the Harlem River; and north of the New Y ...
, tenants withheld their rent while demanding decreases in rent and evictions. Tenants who did not pay were evicted, and police officers forced residents out of their apartments. Tenants violently fought police officers, leading to arrests. At first, the strikes were unsuccessful because landlords were legally supported. Eventually, strikes spread across the country and led to decreases in rent and eviction rates. One result of housing issues that occurred during the Great Depression was the passage of the
Housing Act of 1937 The Housing Act of 1937 (), formally the "United States Housing Act of 1937" and sometimes called the Wagner–Steagall Act, provided for subsidies to be paid from the U.S. government to local public housing agencies (LHAs) to improve living cond ...
, often referred to as the Wagner-Steagall Act. This act established public housing in the United States. Within the first 4 years of its establishment, 170,000 housing units were created.


Japanese American internment during WWII

''See main article:
Internment of Japanese Americans Internment is the imprisonment of people, commonly in large groups, without charges or intent to file charges. The term is especially used for the confinement "of enemy citizens in wartime or of terrorism suspects". Thus, while it can simply ...
'' During
World War II World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...
, mass evictions of Japanese Americans on the West Coast occurred due to perceived threats of national security after the
Pearl Harbor Pearl Harbor is an American lagoon harbor on the island of Oahu, Hawaii, west of Honolulu. It was often visited by the Naval fleet of the United States, before it was acquired from the Hawaiian Kingdom by the U.S. with the signing of the Re ...
bombings. Evictions began in early 1942 after the inaction of Executive Order 9066 by president Franklin Roosevelt. Within 6 months, 112,000 people were sent to internment camps. Those who were forced into these internment camps were slowly released after the end of the war in 1945. The last internment camp did not close until nine months after the end of the war. In 1948, Congress passed a law that would reimburse Japanese Americans for their material losses; however, only ten cents of every dollar was repaid. Finally, in 1988, President Reagan signs a bill which paid each survivor of internment camps $20,000.


21st Century


Great Recession

''See main article:
Great Recession The Great Recession was a period of marked general decline, i.e. a recession, observed in national economies globally that occurred from late 2007 into 2009. The scale and timing of the recession varied from country to country (see map). At ...
'' During the recession of 2008, eviction rates rose significantly due to property
foreclosure Foreclosure is a legal process in which a lender attempts to recover the balance of a loan from a borrower who has stopped making payments to the lender by forcing the sale of the asset used as the collateral for the loan. Formally, a mortg ...
s. In the early months of the recession, renters were evicted with little notice due to landlords foreclosing on properties. However, in May 2009, the Protecting Tenants at Foreclosure Act was passed. This law required “new owners to provide at least 90 days notice to vacate and to honor the terms of any existing leases.”


COVID-19 pandemic

During the
COVID-19 pandemic in the United States The COVID-19 pandemic in the United States is a part of the COVID-19 pandemic, worldwide pandemic of COVID-19, coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by SARS-CoV-2, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). In the Uni ...
, mass job loss and unemployment led to fears of mass evictions as tenants became unable to pay rent. An analysis by the Aspen Institute indicated between 19 and 23 million, or 20 percent of renters, are at risk for eviction by the end of September, 2020; a separate July 2021
United States Census Bureau The United States Census Bureau (USCB), officially the Bureau of the Census, is a principal agency of the U.S. Federal Statistical System, responsible for producing data about the American people and economy. The Census Bureau is part of the ...
survey projects 7 million households unable to pay rent and at risk of eviction, with a potential 3 million eviction filings in the next two months. In response, the federal
CARES Act The Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security Act, also known as the CARES Act, is a $2.2trillion Stimulus (economics), economic stimulus bill passed by the 116th U.S. Congress and signed into law by President Donald Trump on March 27, ...
included an eviction moratorium for federally-backed rental properties; however, this expired on July 24, 2020, and no enforcement mechanism was provided. States and cities also passed a variety of temporary eviction moratoriums. As these moratoriums expired over the course of 2020, there were fears of a massive wave of evictions; by mid-June 2020, over 40% of states offered renters no protections. Nevertheless, on September 4, 2020, The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) issued an Agency Order known as Temporary Halt in Residential Evictions To Prevent the Further Spread of COVID-19. This agency order will be effective from September 4 to December 31 of 2020, during which time, “a landlord, owner of a residential property, or another person with a legal right to pursue eviction or possessory action, shall not evict any covered person from any residential property in any jurisdiction to  which the order applies.” Under The Temporary Halt in Residential Evictions To Prevent the Further Spread of COVID-19, a covered person is a tenant that has given their landlord the legal right to evict them, but has declared, under penalty of perjury, that: available housing assistance has been pursued; homeless status is likely after the eviction; the tenant is making their best efforts to pay at least part of the rent, there was a substantial household income loss that prevents the tenant from paying rent; and the tenant will not earn more than $99,000 USD in annual income for the taxable year of 2020, or will not be required to report incomes in 2019, or, under the
CARES Act The Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security Act, also known as the CARES Act, is a $2.2trillion Stimulus (economics), economic stimulus bill passed by the 116th U.S. Congress and signed into law by President Donald Trump on March 27, ...
received an Economic Impact Payment. This eviction moratorium was allowed to expire on July 31, 2021. However, that does not mean that the individual obligations to comply with the agreements on the tenancy contract are relieved. The order does not eliminate individual obligations to make housing payments, pay the rent, or add interest, if applicable. Moreover, tenants can still be evicted for other reasons apart from not complying with the timely payment. For instance, evictions due to criminal activity, violation of building codes, and threats to other residents' safety are allowed under the order. In addition, the agency order will not apply in areas that already have an eviction moratorium. For example, the
Governor of California The governor of California is the head of government of the U.S. state of California. The governor is the commander-in-chief of the California National Guard and the California State Guard. Established in the Constitution of California, the g ...
stated that the Temporary Halt will not apply in the state because they have established a stronger protection. Furthermore, the order allows states to enact other actions aimed to provide even further assistance to tenants, which implies that tenants not covered by the federal order, could be covered by some state protection. In this way, there are states and cities that issued their own eviction moratoriums. For instance, the state of Massachusetts issued the "Bill providing temporary protections for renters and home owners during the COVID-19 emergency". However, the moratorium waived on October 17, 2020. Hence, the CDC order will take effect. On August 3, 2021, the CDC issued a new eviction moratorium in areas with substantial and high transmission of COVID-19. On August 26, 2021, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled against the federal eviction moratorium put in place by U.S. President Joe Biden and ruled that the CDC had exceeded its authority by enforcing it.


Eviction Process


Reasons for Eviction

Landlords can evict tenants for failing to pay rent, violating lease agreements, or having an expired lease. Landlords can also expel tenants for breaking the law, damaging property, engaging in violence or causing a disturbance. Other legitimate reasons for eviction include improper property use, such as illegal subletting or cannabis cultivation. However, most renters are evicted for non-payment of rent. In 2018, a DC eviction report found that 93% of eviction filings in DC were initiated for non-payment of rent. Landlords may also file for evictions in situations where the tenant is not culpable, know as a "no-fault eviction." In most American municipalities, landlords have the legal right to expel tenants at their discretion, even if the tenant has not broken any lease agreements. For example, landlords can evict tenants if they want to sell or reoccupy their property. Additionally, landlords have no legal obligation to renew a tenant's lease and may choose not to for any reason.


Legal Protections

While landlords may evict tenants for various reasons, there are legal protections that protect tenants and prohibit unfair evictions. Foremost, landlords may only carry out evictions that follow federal, state, and local statutes. For example, the Federal Fair Housing Act prohibits housing discrimination on the basis of race, color, national origin, religion, sex, familial status, or disability. Thus, it is illegal for a landlord to evict a tenant based on any of these characteristics. Additionally, landlords can't evict tenants who have filed a fair housing complaint or discrimination lawsuit against them. Tenants also have the right to report housing code violations without the risk of retaliatory evictions. This protection extends to lease renewals—in
Edwards v. Habib In United States landlord-tenant law, ''Edwards v. Habib'', 397 F.2d 687 (D.C. Cir. 1968), was a case decided by the D.C. Circuit that includes the first recognition of retaliatory eviction as a defense to eviction. Factual background Plaintif ...
, the court established that landlords cannot refuse to renew a tenant's lease for reporting a code violation. In some states, landlords are prohibited from issuing an eviction following any form of a tenant-initiated report. Certain demographic groups are granted further protections to protect against unjust evictions. For example, federal housing assistance recipients cannot be evicted through "no-fault" evictions. Tenants using federal housing expenditures—such as
LIHTC The Low-Income Housing Tax Credit (LIHTC - often pronounced "lie-tech", Housing Credit) is a dollar-for-dollar tax credit in the United States for affordable housing investments. It was created under the Tax Reform Act of 1986 (TRA86) and gives ...
, Section 8 vouchers, or
public housing Public housing is a form of housing tenure in which the property is usually owned by a government authority, either central or local. Although the common goal of public housing is to provide affordable housing, the details, terminology, def ...
can still be evicted—but these evictions must be initiated for lease violations or rent non-payment. Prior to an eviction, landlords must issue an eviction notice, often referred to as a Notice to Quit. In this notice, landlords must provide sufficient information detailing the reason for eviction and options available for the tenant. Landlords are prohibited from
threat A threat is a communication of intent to inflict harm or loss on another person. Intimidation is a tactic used between conflicting parties to make the other timid or psychologically insecure for coercion or control. The act of intimidation for co ...
ening, harming,
harassing Harassment covers a wide range of behaviors of offensive nature. It is commonly understood as behavior that demeans, humiliates or embarrasses a person, and it is characteristically identified by its unlikelihood in terms of social and moral ...
, or
intimidating Intimidation is to "make timid or make fearful"; or to induce fear. This includes intentional behaviors of forcing another person to experience general discomfort such as humiliation, embarrassment, inferiority, limited freedom, etc and the victi ...
evictees, even if they are non-compliant. If an evicted tenant refuses to leave the property, landlords cannot create a hostile environment that would force a tenant to leave the property, a process known as "constructive eviction." For example, landlords may not change a tenant's locks, cut off water or heat, or shut off other essential utilities.


Eviction Law

A fair eviction process is regulated through federal law, state law, local law, common law, and court procedures. There are limited federal laws dedicated specifically to domestic eviction regulation. However, there are federal protections in place that protect tenants against unlawful housing practices. For example, the federal Fair Housing Act prohibits discrimination in housing based on race, color, national origin, religion, sex, disability, or familial status. While eviction laws vary by region, most state and local legislation mirrors the
Uniform Residential Landlord and Tenant Act The Uniform Residential Landlord and Tenant Act, also known as URLTA, is a sample law governing residential landlord and tenant interactions, created in 1972 by the National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws The Uniform Law C ...
(URLTA) or the Model Residential Landlord-Tenant Code. Eviction procedures are also regulated by
common law In law, common law (also known as judicial precedent, judge-made law, or case law) is the body of law created by judges and similar quasi-judicial tribunals by virtue of being stated in written opinions."The common law is not a brooding omnipresen ...
—law based on legal precedents, rather than formal statutes. In other words, when no written law applies to an eviction case, past court decisions are used to guide judge rulings. In some cases, lease terms can override common law. Additionally, court procedures—which vary by municipality—can influence an eviction case. For instance, the organization of a court's docket systems can impact the amount of time it takes a landlord to carry out an eviction. During Covid-19, the federal government passed the CARE Act, which included a temporary eviction moratorium for eligible renters.


Causes

Each year, millions of renters and homeowners are evicted across the United States. Rising housing costs and affordable housing shortages have catalyzed a nationwide housing insecurity crisis, driving up eviction rates. Over the past few decades, housing prices have outpaced the median household income, making it increasingly difficult for renters and homeowners to secure affordable housing.Charette, Allison, Chris Herbert, Andrew Jakabovics, Ellen Tracy Marya, and Daniel T. McCue. "Projecting trends in severely cost-burdened renters: 2015–2025." ''Harvard University’s Joint Center for Housing Studies and Enterprise Community Partners Inc'' (2015). http://www.wikisolver.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Rent-Crisis-2015.pdf The Joint Center for Housing Studies of Harvard University found that 26.5% of US renters were severely cost-burdened in 2013, almost twice the rate as in 1960. Further, most renting families under the
poverty line The poverty threshold, poverty limit, poverty line or breadline is the minimum level of income deemed adequate in a particular country. The poverty line is usually calculated by estimating the total cost of one year's worth of necessities for t ...
spend more than 50% of their income on rent, with one in four such families spending over 70% of their income on rent and utilities. For low-income renters, rising rents and housing affordability issues are exacerbated by a shortage of low-cost housing units.“Out of Reach.” National Low Income Housing Coalition.https://nlihc.org/sites/default/files/oor/2021/Out-of-Reach_2021.pdf In 2019, the US had a shortage of 7 million affordable housing units for renters at or below the poverty line, according to data from the National Low Income Housing Coalition. In 2015, only one in four eligible low-income renters received housing assistance, according to the Center on Budget and Policy Priorities. In a climate of housing insecurity, cost-burdened renters face an increased risk of eviction. In addition to individual risk factors, neighborhood composition is highly correlated with eviction patterns. The risk of eviction is significantly higher in neighborhoods with high degrees of racial or economic segregation. Using data from Princeton University's Eviction Lab, a 2020 study found that eviction filings were significantly higher in black-majority neighborhoods than in white majority neighborhoods. Additionally, an analysis of eviction rates in Southern California found that a neighborhood's racial or economic composition was a greater predictor of eviction filings than housing market changes. In other words, neighborhoods with a greater concentration of low-income or black tenants had higher eviction rates than neighborhoods with rising rent. Similar patterns can be seen with inter-neighborhood dynamics—research indicates that low-income neighborhoods in Seattle not only faced higher eviction rates, but neighborhoods bordering low-income areas also faced higher eviction rates. Disadvantaged neighborhoods with high eviction rates face constant instability, which further disincentivizes community investment and involvement. When housing pressures are extreme, even middle-class and working-class renters are evicted by landlords eager to capitalize on the rising market rates, such as in
San Francisco San Francisco (; Spanish language, Spanish for "Francis of Assisi, Saint Francis"), officially the City and County of San Francisco, is the commercial, financial, and cultural center of Northern California. The city proper is the List of Ca ...
during the various tech booms. In such circumstances, landlords may seize upon minor violations that were previously tolerated, such as keeping a small pet or storing a bicycle in the hallway, to evict renters. The situation in California is aggravated by the
Ellis Act The Ellis Act (California Government Code Chapter 12.75) is a 1985 California state law that allows landlords to evict residential tenants to "go out of the rental business" in spite of desires by local governments to compel them to continue provid ...
, which allows landlords to evict tenants and immediately sell vacant apartments as condominiums.


Disproportionately impacted evictees


Low-income renters

Low-income renters and homeowners face higher eviction rates and are also disproportionately impacted by the consequences of eviction. Foremost, low-income renters often lack the financial means to navigate the eviction process. For example, an Alabama Law study found that only 16.4% of Illinois households received any form of legal representation for their legal problems, with housing being the second most common legal issue for low-income households. A lack of financial resources can be a barrier to accessing legal representation, which puts low-income renters at a disadvantage in court. This disparity is especially prevalent in eviction cases, since eviction law is complex and difficult to interpret. In a study referenced in Pepperdine Law Review, researchers found that unrepresented low-income tenants in
New York City New York, often called New York City or NYC, is the List of United States cities by population, most populous city in the United States. With a 2020 population of 8,804,190 distributed over , New York City is also the L ...
fared significantly worse in court than represented low-income tenants—unrepresented tenants were more likely to default in court and more likely to receive a warrant of eviction. Without legal support, defendants may not be able to build or articulate a sound defense that holds up in a court. One study of
Philadelphia Philadelphia, often called Philly, is the largest city in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, the sixth-largest city in the U.S., the second-largest city in both the Northeast megalopolis and Mid-Atlantic regions after New York City. Sinc ...
's housing court found that tenants who had legal representation were almost 20 times more likely to prevail in court than those without legal representation. Additionally, eviction-related court hearings in
Chicago (''City in a Garden''); I Will , image_map = , map_caption = Interactive Map of Chicago , coordinates = , coordinates_footnotes = , subdivision_type = Country , subdivision_name ...
are almost two minutes shorter when the landlord has a legal defense and the tenant does not. Unexpected financial costs—such as job loss, drop in income, or medical bills—can jeopardize housing stability and potentially lead to eviction. This is especially true for poor tenants, who may not have the financial safety net to absorb unexpected costs. In addition, low-income individuals are more likely to lack
financial literacy Financial literacy is the possession of the set of skills and knowledge that allows an individual to make informed and effective decisions with all of their financial resources. Raising interest in personal finance is now a focus of state-run prog ...
skills, which is associated with an increased likelihood of eviction. Similarly, low-income renters who fail to seek out or use housing-related subsidies are at increased risk of future eviction.


Black and Hispanic renters

Black tenants face significantly higher filing and eviction rates than their white counterparts. Looking at neighborhood racial composition in Milwaukee, sociologist Matthew Desmond found that majority-black neighborhoods had an average annual eviction rate of 7.4%, compared to 1.4% in majority-white neighborhoods. In this study, Desmond also emphasizes the dual disadvantage black women face in housing—black women face the highest eviction rates of any demographic group. In an interview with ''The Atlantic'', Desmond reported that approximately one in five black women will experience eviction, compared to one in fifteen white women. Eviction rates are also linked to the racial concentration of neighborhoods. The RVA Eviction Lab, in Richmond, Virginia, estimates that as the proportion of a neighborhood's black population increases by 10%, eviction rates would increase by 1.2%. Hispanic renters also face higher filing and eviction rates than their white counterparts. In a study published in the '' Harvard Civil Rights–Civil Liberties Law Review'', researchers investigated the relationship between Hispanic origin and eviction in Milwaukee. These researchers saw a strong correlation between Hispanic tenants' risk of eviction and neighborhood racial composition. In Milwaukee neighborhoods that were two-thirds white, approximately 80% of landlords were white. In these same neighborhoods, the average eviction rate was 25%, yet the eviction rate for Hispanics was upwards of 35%. The study also found that Hispanic renters were significantly more likely to be evicted by white landlords than non-white landlords. According to Greenberg et al, these findings suggest that discrimination contributes to racial disparities in Milwaukee eviction rates.


Women

Women, especially minority women, are disproportionately impacted by eviction. Between 2003 and 2007, women made up 60.6% of the evicted population in Milwaukee and 62% of people who appeared in eviction court. This is likely because women are more likely to be impoverished in America, and therefore have less access to legal resources. When homeless men and women were asked why they were homeless, women cited eviction nearly twice as often as much as men did, according to a study in the ''Journal of Social Distress and the Homelessness''. Black and Hispanic women face the highest eviction rates and are the most represented demographic in eviction hearings. For example, in Baltimore, 79% of tenants in eviction cases were black women, yet black women only make up 34% of Baltimore's population. According to Desmond, women face higher eviction rates than men because they have more difficulty paying rent. Across the United States, the wage gap disadvantages women, with women earning less on average than their male counterparts. Additionally, women spend more money than men on child and domestic expenses, further driving income inequality and inhibiting women from paying rent.


Families with children

Renters with children are at increased risk of eviction. According to Matthew Desmond, renters with children have an eviction rate three times higher than the average. This is because landlords believe that children have the potential to be problematic. In addition, neighborhoods with more children will also have higher rates of evictions. Greenberg et al found that having a child is more strongly correlated with neighborhood eviction patterns than race, gender, or class. By the age of 15, approximately 15% of children will have experienced eviction. This has a negative impact on the behavioral development, education, and health of children. A study following low-income urban mothers revealed that evicted mothers are "more likely to suffer from depression, report worse health for themselves and their children, and report more parenting stress." After two years, mothers who experienced evictions still reported significantly higher levels of mental distress. Pregnancy during eviction is also related to negative health outcomes for women and their offspring. Pregnant women who experienced evictions have significantly lower infant birth weights and infant prematurity rates compared to non-pregnant women.


Consequences


Housing Insecurity and Poverty

Experiencing eviction is associated with many negative socioeconomic outcomes, including an increased risk of housing instability, job loss,
homelessness Homelessness or houselessness – also known as a state of being unhoused or unsheltered – is the condition of lacking stable, safe, and adequate housing. People can be categorized as homeless if they are: * living on the streets, also kn ...
, and poor health. Having a record of eviction makes it extremely difficult to secure decent housing. A legal eviction will nearly always go on an evictee's permanent record, barring them from future housing opportunities. When an eviction is filed in the court system, this record becomes available to landlords. Landlords can look up the records of prospective renters through a tenant screening report. Through this screening, landlords can find information about prospective tenants' criminal backgrounds,
credit score A credit score is a numerical expression based on a level analysis of a person's credit files, to represent the creditworthiness of an individual. A credit score is primarily based on a credit report, information typically sourced from credit bu ...
s, and eviction history. If an individual has any history of eviction, this will show up on their record—even if the case was dismissed and the tenant was found not guilty. Most landlords will not accept tenants with any form of an eviction record. Tenants with a record of eviction can also be denied
subsidized housing Subsidized housing is government sponsored economic assistance aimed towards alleviating housing costs and expenses for impoverished people with low to moderate incomes. In the United States, subsidized housing is often called "affordable housin ...
. This exclusion further exacerbates housing instability for minority groups who are most reliant on subsidized housing—in 2019, 42% of HUD program-assisted renters were Black, 19% were Hispanic, and 36% had children, according to the US Department of Housing and Urban Development. According to sociologist Matthew Desmond, eviction is a cause of poverty, as well as a result of it. Evicted individuals are often forced to accept lower quality housing and move to neighborhoods with higher crime and poverty rates. Experiencing an eviction also increases the risk of job loss and job instability, which exacerbates housing instability. Evicted individuals are uprooted from their communities, forcing them to sever ties with family, schools,
religious organization Religious activities generally need some infrastructure to be conducted. For this reason, there generally exist religion-supporting organizations, which are some form of organization that manages: * the upkeep of places of worship, such as ...
s, and other social support systems. Following an eviction, tenants may also lose personal property—personal possessions are routinely thrown away, left on the sidewalk, or placed in storage that can only be accessed by paying a fee. Protecting or recovering personal possessions can be particularly difficult for poor, elderly, and
disabled Disability is the experience of any condition that makes it more difficult for a person to do certain activities or have equitable access within a given society. Disabilities may be cognitive, developmental, intellectual, mental, physical, se ...
individuals, who may be unable to access or afford storage. Following an eviction, evictees may spend months, or even years, searching for decent housing. In some cases, securing housing becomes impossible and eviction leads to homelessness—In Eric Lindblom's book, ''Homelessness in America'', Lindblom found that one in two homeless adults reports eviction or rent affordability as the cause of their homelessness. In 2010, a New York City report estimated that 47% of homeless families in New York City
homeless shelter Homeless shelters are a type of homeless service agency which provide temporary residence for homeless individuals and families. Shelters exist to provide residents with safety and protection from exposure to the weather while simultaneously r ...
s had experienced eviction.


Mental health

Various studies have emphasizes that evictees are more likely to experience negative mental health outcomes, including
anxiety Anxiety is an emotion which is characterized by an unpleasant state of inner turmoil and includes feelings of dread over anticipated events. Anxiety is different than fear in that the former is defined as the anticipation of a future threat wh ...
, depression,
psychological distress Mental distress or psychological distress encompasses the symptoms and experiences of a person's internal life that are commonly held to be troubling, confusing or out of the ordinary. Mental distress can potentially lead to a change of behavior, a ...
, and
suicide Suicide is the act of intentionally causing one's own death. Mental disorders (including depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, personality disorders, anxiety disorders), physical disorders (such as chronic fatigue syndrome), and s ...
. Research has found that the stress of even ''receiving'' an eviction notice is so substantial that it can be a predictor of a tenant's future housing insecurity, even if the tenant is not evicted. The eviction process is also tied to long-term psychological issues for tenants and their children. In a longitudinal study on eviction, Matthew Desmond found that evicted adults were more likely to report poor
mental health Mental health encompasses emotional, psychological, and social well-being, influencing cognition, perception, and behavior. It likewise determines how an individual handles stress, interpersonal relationships, and decision-making. Mental health ...
both one year and eight years following their eviction. Individuals who experience eviction have disproportionately higher rates of anxiety and depression. In a sample of evicted adults, the Michigan Recession and Recovery Study found that 13.9% of those evicted in the past 12 months suffered from major or minor depression and that 33.8% had experienced an
anxiety attack Panic attacks are sudden periods of intense fear and discomfort that may include palpitations, sweating, chest pain or chest discomfort, shortness of breath, trembling, dizziness, numbness, confusion, or a feeling of impending doom or of losing ...
in the last 4 weeks. Additionally, across the 27 states that participate in the National Violent Death Reporting System in 2015, 3.8% of those who committed suicide with known circumstances had recently experienced eviction.


Physical Health

One physical health impact that eviction has on tenants evicted is an increased spread and contraction of COVID-19. This is because of actions tenants take after being evicted. When evicted, residents must find other places to live, such as a homeless shelter or a friend's house. According to the CDC, "adding as few as two new members to a household can as much as double the risk of illness." Additionally, when people are living in the same household, it is much harder to adhere to
social distancing In public health, social distancing, also called physical distancing, (NB. Regula Venske is president of the PEN Centre Germany.) is a set of non-pharmaceutical interventions or measures intended to prevent the spread of a contagious dis ...
protocols. The mental health consequences of eviction also weaken the
immune system The immune system is a network of biological processes that protects an organism from diseases. It detects and responds to a wide variety of pathogens, from viruses to parasitic worms, as well as cancer cells and objects such as wood splinte ...
, increasing transmission. In addition, eviction predisposes tenants to hazardous housing conditions, which can lead to negative health outcomes. Following an eviction, low-income renters often cannot secure decent housing, forcing them to settle for poorly maintained or unsafe units. Renters in substandard housing units may face increased exposure to dust, mold, allergens, pests, and other hazards. Additionally, evictees are often forced into improvised neighborhoods, which typically have higher levels of air and water pollution. As a result, renters face an increased risk of
respiratory illness Respiratory diseases, or lung diseases, are pathological conditions affecting the organs and tissues that make gas exchange difficult in air-breathing animals. They include conditions of the respiratory tract including the trachea, bronchi, bron ...
,
cardiovascular disease Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a class of diseases that involve the heart or blood vessels. CVD includes coronary artery diseases (CAD) such as angina and myocardial infarction (commonly known as a heart attack). Other CVDs include stroke, h ...
, and other health issues. Substandard housing is also more likely to contain lead-contaminated walls and water, which can be particularly dangerous for children. Exposure to
lead Lead is a chemical element with the symbol Pb (from the Latin ) and atomic number 82. It is a heavy metal that is denser than most common materials. Lead is soft and malleable, and also has a relatively low melting point. When freshly cu ...
, even in small doses, can have serious health consequences for children, including developmental delays, decreased intelligence, and serious neurological and brain damage. Eviction rates also create a higher risk for one to contract
sexually transmitted infection Sexually transmitted infections (STIs), also referred to as sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) and the older term venereal diseases, are infections that are Transmission (medicine), spread by Human sexual activity, sexual activity, especi ...
s. There is a variety of factors that increase this risk for those evicted. Often times those evicted don't have access to STI protection to condoms. Additionally, those evicted could participate in sexual activity for resources. Mental health also plays a role in the increased transmission of STIs, as sexual activity has been seen to be used as a coping mechanism for the associated stress with eviction. Eviction also has an impact on monogamous relationships, which can lead to increased partners and an increased risk for STIs.


Rates and locations

There is no government reporting system on eviction, so variance by location and time were, at best, little understood and, at worst, invisible. This began to change with the implementation of
Princeton University Princeton University is a private university, private research university in Princeton, New Jersey. Founded in 1746 in Elizabeth, New Jersey, Elizabeth as the College of New Jersey, Princeton is the List of Colonial Colleges, fourth-oldest ins ...
's Eviction Lab which published the results of an analysis of 900,000 eviction notices that occurred in 2016.


See also

* Home-ownership in the United States *
Housing insecurity in the United States Housing insecurity is the lack of security in an individual shelter that is the result of high housing costs relative to income, poor housing quality, unstable neighborhoods, overcrowding, and, but may not include, homelessness. Measuring hou ...
*
Homelessness in the United States Homelessness in the United States refers to the issue of homelessness in the United States, a condition wherein people lack a fixed, regular, and adequate residence. The number of homeless people varies from different federal government accou ...
*
Poverty in the United States In the United States, poverty has both social and political implications. In 2020, there were 37.2 million people in poverty. Some of the many causes include income inequality, inflation, unemployment, debt traps and poor education.Western, B ...
*
Legal aid in the United States Legal aid in the United States is the provision of assistance to people who are unable to afford legal representation and access to the court system in the United States. In the US, legal aid provisions are different for criminal law and civil l ...
*
Uniform Residential Landlord and Tenant Act The Uniform Residential Landlord and Tenant Act, also known as URLTA, is a sample law governing residential landlord and tenant interactions, created in 1972 by the National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws The Uniform Law C ...


References


External links


Eviction Lab
from
Matthew Desmond Matthew Desmond is a sociologist and the Maurice P. During Professor of Sociology at Princeton University, where he is also the principal investigator of the Eviction Lab. Desmond was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 2022. Educ ...
at
Princeton University Princeton University is a private university, private research university in Princeton, New Jersey. Founded in 1746 in Elizabeth, New Jersey, Elizabeth as the College of New Jersey, Princeton is the List of Colonial Colleges, fourth-oldest ins ...
—a nationwide database of evictions {{United States topics Housing in the United States Wealth in the United States Poverty in the United States