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''Euphorbia tithymaloides'' is a
perennial A perennial plant or simply perennial is a plant that lives more than two years. The term ('' per-'' + '' -ennial'', "through the years") is often used to differentiate a plant from shorter-lived annuals and biennials. The term is also wide ...
succulent In botany, succulent plants, also known as succulents, are plants with parts that are thickened, fleshy, and engorged, usually to retain water in arid climates or soil conditions. The word ''succulent'' comes from the Latin word ''sucus'', meani ...
spurge ''Euphorbia'' is a very large and diverse genus of flowering plants, commonly called spurge, in the family Euphorbiaceae. "Euphorbia" is sometimes used in ordinary English to collectively refer to all members of Euphorbiaceae (in deference to t ...
. An erect
shrub A shrub (often also called a bush) is a small-to-medium-sized perennial woody plant. Unlike herbaceous plants, shrubs have persistent woody stems above the ground. Shrubs can be either deciduous or evergreen. They are distinguished from trees ...
,Vardhana, ''Direct Uses of Medicinal Plants and Their Identification'', 2008, p. 261. the plant is also known by the scientific name ''Pedilanthus tithymaloides''. However, the genus ''Pedilanthus'' has been submerged into the genus ''Euphorbia'', and is more correctly known by its new name (''Euphorbia tithymaloides'').Steinmann, "The Submersion of ''Pedilanthus'' into ''Euphorbia'' (Euphorbiaceae)," ''Acta Botanica Mexicana'', 2003, p. 45.Spoerke and Smolinske, ''Toxicity of Houseplants'', 1990, p. 181.


Names

''Euphorbia tithymaloides'' has a large number of household names used by gardeners and the public. Among them are redbird flower, devil's-backbone, redbird cactus, Jewbush, buck-thorn, cimora misha, Christmas candle, fiddle flower, ipecacuahana, Jacob's ladder, Japanese poinsettia, Jew's slipper, milk-hedge, myrtle-leaved spurge, Padus-leaved clipper plant, red slipper spurge, slipper flower, slipper plant, slipper spurge, timora misha, and zig-zag plant. In other parts of the world, it is known as gin-ryu (Japan); pokok lipan and penawar lipan (Indonesia); airi, baire, and agia "rang chita" (Bengal),(India); (Yoruba); sapatinho do diabo (Brazil); ítamo real (Cuba and Puerto Rico); pantoufle (France); and zapatilla del diablo (Mexico).Liogier and Martorell, ''Flora of Puerto Rico and Adjacent Islands: A Systematic Synopsis'', 2000, p. 105.


Distribution and description

''Euphorbia tithymaloides'' is native to
tropical The tropics are the regions of Earth surrounding the Equator. They are defined in latitude by the Tropic of Cancer in the Northern Hemisphere at N and the Tropic of Capricorn in the Southern Hemisphere at S. The tropics are also referred to ...
and
subtropical The subtropical zones or subtropics are geographical zone, geographical and Köppen climate classification, climate zones to the Northern Hemisphere, north and Southern Hemisphere, south of the tropics. Geographically part of the Geographical z ...
North America North America is a continent in the Northern Hemisphere and almost entirely within the Western Hemisphere. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Car ...
and
Central America Central America ( es, América Central or ) is a subregion of the Americas. Its boundaries are defined as bordering the United States to the north, Colombia to the south, the Caribbean Sea to the east, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. ...
. It prefers soil that is sandy, well-drained, and nutrient-rich, particularly with higher concentrations of
boron Boron is a chemical element with the symbol B and atomic number 5. In its crystalline form it is a brittle, dark, lustrous metalloid; in its amorphous form it is a brown powder. As the lightest element of the ''boron group'' it has th ...
,
copper Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu (from la, cuprum) and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of pure copper has a pinkis ...
,
iron Iron () is a chemical element with symbol Fe (from la, ferrum) and atomic number 26. It is a metal that belongs to the first transition series and group 8 of the periodic table. It is, by mass, the most common element on Earth, right in f ...
,
manganese Manganese is a chemical element with the symbol Mn and atomic number 25. It is a hard, brittle, silvery metal, often found in minerals in combination with iron. Manganese is a transition metal with a multifaceted array of industrial alloy use ...
,
molybdenum Molybdenum is a chemical element with the symbol Mo and atomic number 42 which is located in period 5 and group 6. The name is from Neo-Latin ''molybdaenum'', which is based on Ancient Greek ', meaning lead, since its ores were confused with lea ...
, and
zinc Zinc is a chemical element with the symbol Zn and atomic number 30. Zinc is a slightly brittle metal at room temperature and has a shiny-greyish appearance when oxidation is removed. It is the first element in group 12 (IIB) of the periodi ...
.Pienaar, ''The South African "What Flower Is That?"'', 2000, p. 253.Neumann, Kumar, and Sopory, ''Recent Advances in Plant Biotechnology and Its Applications'', 2008, p. 354. It is relatively intolerant of high
soil salinity Soil salinity is the salt content in the soil; the process of increasing the salt content is known as salinization. Salts occur naturally within soils and water. Salination can be caused by natural processes such as mineral weathering or by the ...
levels, but exhibits saline tolerance if well fertilized. The plant tends to be taller and have more biomass if it is well-watered. The plant requires a sunny area to grow in. The shrub can grow to in height and generally is about in width.Millspaugh and Hamet, ''The Genera "Pedilanthus" and "Cubanthus," and Other American "Euphorbiaceae"'', 1913, p. 355.
/ref> The leaf is a
simple Simple or SIMPLE may refer to: *Simplicity, the state or quality of being simple Arts and entertainment * ''Simple'' (album), by Andy Yorke, 2008, and its title track * "Simple" (Florida Georgia Line song), 2018 * "Simple", a song by Johnn ...
angiosperm Flowering plants are plants that bear flowers and fruits, and form the clade Angiospermae (), commonly called angiosperms. The term "angiosperm" is derived from the Greek words ('container, vessel') and ('seed'), and refers to those plants th ...
leaf, arranged oppositely on the stem. Each leaf is
sessile Sessility, or sessile, may refer to: * Sessility (motility), organisms which are not able to move about * Sessility (botany), flowers or leaves that grow directly from the stem or peduncle of a plant * Sessility (medicine), tumors and polyps that ...
(attaching directly to the plant), and about in length. The leaves are
glabrous Glabrousness (from the Latin '' glaber'' meaning "bald", "hairless", "shaved", "smooth") is the technical term for a lack of hair, down, setae, trichomes or other such covering. A glabrous surface may be a natural characteristic of all or part of ...
(smooth) and
acuminate The following is a list of terms which are used to describe leaf morphology in the description and taxonomy of plants. Leaves may be simple (a single leaf blade or lamina) or compound (with several leaflets). The edge of the leaf may be regular o ...
in shape, with
entire Entire may refer to: * Entire function, a function that is holomorphic on the whole complex plane * Entire (animal), an indication that an animal is not neutered * Entire (botany) This glossary of botanical terms is a list of definitions of ...
(smooth) edges. The veins in the leaves are
pinnate Pinnation (also called pennation) is the arrangement of feather-like or multi-divided features arising from both sides of a common axis. Pinnation occurs in biological morphology, in crystals, such as some forms of ice or metal crystals, and in ...
. The plant terminates in a dichotomous cyme, with a peduncle supporting each flower. The floral leaves are bifid (split in two parts) and
ovate Ovate may refer to: *Ovate (egg-shaped) leaves, tepals, or other botanical parts *Ovate, a type of prehistoric stone hand axe *Ovates, one of three ranks of membership in the Welsh Gorsedd *Vates In modern English, the nouns vates () and ovat ...
, while the involucral bracts are bright red, irregularly
acuminate The following is a list of terms which are used to describe leaf morphology in the description and taxonomy of plants. Leaves may be simple (a single leaf blade or lamina) or compound (with several leaflets). The edge of the leaf may be regular o ...
in shape (e.g., like a slipper), and about in length with a long, thin tube. The flower is void of scent.Strong, ''The American Flora: Or History of Plants and Wild Flowers'', 1850, p. 127. The male
pedicel Pedicle or pedicel may refer to: Human anatomy *Pedicle of vertebral arch, the segment between the transverse process and the vertebral body, and is often used as a radiographic marker and entry point in vertebroplasty and kyphoplasty procedures ...
is hairy, while the female is glabrous. The seed pod is about long and wide, and ovoid in shape (with truncated ends). The plant generally flowers in mid-spring.


Taxonomy

There are several recognized subspecies. These include: * ''Euphorbia tithymaloides tithymaloides'' * ''Euphorbia tithymaloides angustifolia'' * ''Euphorbia tithymaloides bahamensis'' * ''Euphorbia tithymaloides jamaicensis'' * ''Euphorbia tithymaloides padifolia'' * ''Euphorbia tithymaloides parasitica'' * ''Euphorbia tithymaloides retusa'' * ''Euphorbia tithymaloides smallii'' Subspecies are usually identifiable by their leaves, which come in several types such as
laurel Laurel may refer to: Plants * Lauraceae, the laurel family * Laurel (plant), including a list of trees and plants known as laurel People * Laurel (given name), people with the given name * Laurel (surname), people with the surname * Laurel (mus ...
-like and variegated and which can be tinged with white or red.


Ring species

In 2012, Cacho and Baum described the first example of a ring species in plants. They showed that ''Euphorbia tithymaloides'' has reproduced and evolved in a ring through
Central America Central America ( es, América Central or ) is a subregion of the Americas. Its boundaries are defined as bordering the United States to the north, Colombia to the south, the Caribbean Sea to the east, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. ...
and the
Caribbean The Caribbean (, ) ( es, El Caribe; french: la Caraïbe; ht, Karayib; nl, De Caraïben) is a region of the Americas that consists of the Caribbean Sea, its islands (some surrounded by the Caribbean Sea and some bordering both the Caribbean Se ...
, meeting in the
Virgin Islands The Virgin Islands ( es, Islas Vírgenes) are an archipelago in the Caribbean Sea. They are geologically and biogeographically the easternmost part of the Greater Antilles, the northern islands belonging to the Puerto Rico Trench and St. Croix ...
where they appear to be morphologically and ecologically distinct.


Garden and house use

''Euphorbia tithymaloides'' was introduced as a garden plant prior to 1688.Wijnands, ''The Botany of the Commelins'', 1983, p. 105. The first record of it growing in a garden was in Amsterdam. It is primarily used as an outdoor garden border plant, but certain varieties do well indoors. Because of the plant's toxicity, gardeners are cautioned to wear goggles, gloves, long-sleeved shirts, and long pants.Nellis, ''Poisonous Plants and Animals of Florida and the Caribbean'', 1997, p. 182. Propagation may be by seed or cutting. Cuttings should be made above a joint, be long, and planted in sandy, nutrient-rich soil and allowed to root before planting. Cuttings should be made in March – April or June – July, and from the middle or top of the main stem.
Hummingbird Hummingbirds are birds native to the Americas and comprise the biological family Trochilidae. With about 361 species and 113 genera, they occur from Alaska to Tierra del Fuego, but the vast majority of the species are found in the tropics aro ...
s are attracted to the plant's flowers.
Cabbage worm The term cabbage worm is primarily used for any of four kinds of lepidopteran whose larvae feed on cabbages and other cole crops. Favorite foods include broccoli, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, collards, kale, mustard greens, turnip greens, radishes ...
s are particularly fond of the plant's leaves. Municipalities have planted ''Euphorbia tithymaloides'' in
landfill A landfill site, also known as a tip, dump, rubbish dump, garbage dump, or dumping ground, is a site for the disposal of waste materials. Landfill is the oldest and most common form of waste disposal, although the systematic burial of the waste ...
s, toxic waste sites, and along roadsides because it is one of the few plants which can thrive in these more difficult environments.


Toxicity

The roots, stems, and leaves of the plant are known to be toxic. These parts of the plant contain euphorbol (a complex
terpene Terpenes () are a class of natural products consisting of compounds with the formula (C5H8)n for n > 1. Comprising more than 30,000 compounds, these unsaturated hydrocarbons are produced predominantly by plants, particularly conifers. Terpenes ar ...
) and other
diterpene Diterpenes are a class of chemical compounds composed of four isoprene units, often with the molecular formula C20H32. They are biosynthesized by plants, animals and fungi via the HMG-CoA reductase pathway, with geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate being ...
ester In chemistry, an ester is a compound derived from an oxoacid (organic or inorganic) in which at least one hydroxyl group () is replaced by an alkoxy group (), as in the substitution reaction of a carboxylic acid and an alcohol. Glycerides ar ...
s. These are also known
carcinogen A carcinogen is any substance, radionuclide, or radiation that promotes carcinogenesis (the formation of cancer). This may be due to the ability to damage the genome or to the disruption of cellular metabolic processes. Several radioactive substan ...
s. The plant's leaves and stems also contain
beta-sitosterol β-sitosterol (beta-sitosterol) is one of several phytosterols (plant sterols) with chemical structures similar to that of cholesterol. It is a white, waxy powder with a characteristic odor, and is one of the components of the food additive E499 ...
, cycloartenone,
octacosanol 1-Octacosanol (also known as ''n''-octacosanol, octacosyl alcohol, cluytyl alcohol, montanyl alcohol) is a straight-chain aliphatic 28-carbon primary fatty alcohol that is common in the epicuticular waxes of plants, including the leaves of many ...
, and
oxime In organic chemistry, an oxime is a organic compound belonging to the imines, with the general formula , where R is an organic side-chain and R’ may be hydrogen, forming an aldoxime, or another organic group, forming a ketoxime. O-substituted ...
, all of which have known medicinal as well as toxic properties.Khare, ''Indian Medicinal Plants: An Illustrated Dictionary'', 2007, p. 469. Even minor amounts (a few drops) of the juice of the ''Euphorbia tithymaloides'' root can irritate mucosal membranes. When ingested, the irritation of the mucosal membranes of the stomach and intestines will cause nausea and vomiting. Topical application causes skin irritation,
inflammation Inflammation (from la, wikt:en:inflammatio#Latin, inflammatio) is part of the complex biological response of body tissues to harmful stimuli, such as pathogens, damaged cells, or Irritation, irritants, and is a protective response involving im ...
, and even blisters. If introduced topically to the eye, severe pain,
keratoconjunctivitis Keratoconjunctivitis is inflammation ("-itis") of the cornea and conjunctiva. When only the cornea is inflamed, it is called ''keratitis''; when only the conjunctiva is inflamed, it is called ''conjunctivitis''. Causes There are several potentia ...
, and reduced visual acuity occur. Ingesting even a few seeds can cause violent and persistent vomiting and extreme
diarrhea Diarrhea, also spelled diarrhoea, is the condition of having at least three loose, liquid, or watery bowel movements each day. It often lasts for a few days and can result in dehydration due to fluid loss. Signs of dehydration often begin wi ...
. If latex or root juice gets on the skin, the victim should immediately wash with soap and warm water. If
latex Latex is an emulsion (stable dispersion) of polymer microparticles in water. Latexes are found in nature, but synthetic latexes are common as well. In nature, latex is found as a milky fluid found in 10% of all flowering plants (angiosperms ...
or juice gets in the eye, continuous rinsing with fresh water should be the first course of action. Topical steroids are indicated for skin or eye contact. Intravenous fluids are often administered to counteract the fluid loss due to vomiting and diarrhea.


Medicinal usage

The root is known to be a powerful
emetic Vomiting (also known as emesis and throwing up) is the involuntary, forceful expulsion of the contents of one's stomach through the mouth and sometimes the nose. Vomiting can be the result of ailments like food poisoning, gastroenteri ...
. A
proteolytic enzyme A protease (also called a peptidase, proteinase, or proteolytic enzyme) is an enzyme that catalyzes (increases reaction rate or "speeds up") proteolysis, breaking down proteins into smaller polypeptides or single amino acids, and spurring the for ...
known as pedilanthain can be extracted from the plant's latex, and has been shown in experiments to be effective against intestinal worms and to reduce inflammation when ingested. In 1995, a
galactose Galactose (, '' galacto-'' + '' -ose'', "milk sugar"), sometimes abbreviated Gal, is a monosaccharide sugar that is about as sweet as glucose, and about 65% as sweet as sucrose. It is an aldohexose and a C-4 epimer of glucose. A galactose molec ...
-specific
lectin Lectins are carbohydrate-binding proteins that are highly specific for sugar groups that are part of other molecules, so cause agglutination of particular cells or precipitation of glycoconjugates and polysaccharides. Lectins have a role in rec ...
was purified from the plant's latex, and indications are that it might be useful in combatting
diabetes mellitus Diabetes, also known as diabetes mellitus, is a group of metabolic disorders characterized by a high blood sugar level ( hyperglycemia) over a prolonged period of time. Symptoms often include frequent urination, increased thirst and increased ap ...
. In
folk medicine Traditional medicine (also known as indigenous medicine or folk medicine) comprises medical aspects of traditional knowledge that developed over generations within the folk beliefs of various societies, including indigenous peoples, before the ...
, tea has been brewed from the leaves which has been used to treat
asthma Asthma is a long-term inflammatory disease of the airways of the lungs. It is characterized by variable and recurring symptoms, reversible airflow obstruction, and easily triggered bronchospasms. Symptoms include episodes of wheezing, cou ...
, persistent coughing,
laryngitis Laryngitis is inflammation of the larynx (voice box). Symptoms often include a hoarse voice and may include fever, cough, pain in the front of the neck, and trouble swallowing. Typically, these last under two weeks. Laryngitis is categorised ...
,
mouth ulcer A mouth ulcer (aphtha) is an ulcer that occurs on the mucous membrane of the oral cavity. Mouth ulcers are very common, occurring in association with many diseases and by many different mechanisms, but usually there is no serious underlying cause ...
s, and
venereal disease Sexually transmitted infections (STIs), also referred to as sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) and the older term venereal diseases, are infections that are spread by sexual activity, especially vaginal intercourse, anal sex, and oral se ...
. Tea brewed from the root has been used as an
abortifacient An abortifacient ("that which will cause a miscarriage" from Latin: ''abortus'' "miscarriage" and '' faciens'' "making") is a substance that induces abortion. This is a nonspecific term which may refer to any number of substances or medications, ...
. The latex has been used topically to treat
callus A callus is an area of thickened and sometimes hardened skin that forms as a response to repeated friction, pressure, or other irritation. Since repeated contact is required, calluses are most often found on the feet and hands, but they may o ...
es, ear ache, insect stings,
ringworm Dermatophytosis, also known as ringworm, is a fungal infection of the skin. Typically it results in a red, itchy, scaly, circular rash. Hair loss may occur in the area affected. Symptoms begin four to fourteen days after exposure. Multiple a ...
,
skin cancer Skin cancers are cancers that arise from the skin. They are due to the development of abnormal cells that have the ability to invade or spread to other parts of the body. There are three main types of skin cancers: basal-cell skin cancer (BCC) ...
, toothache,
umbilical hernia An umbilical hernia is a health condition where the abdominal wall behind the navel is damaged. It may cause the navel to bulge outwards—the bulge consisting of abdominal fat from the greater omentum or occasionally parts of the small intestine. ...
s, and
wart Warts are typically small, rough, hard growths that are similar in color to the rest of the skin. They typically do not result in other symptoms, except when on the bottom of the feet, where they may be painful. While they usually occur on the ...
s. None of these uses has been scientifically verified as effective. In the
West Indies The West Indies is a subregion of North America, surrounded by the North Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea that includes 13 independent island countries and 18 dependencies and other territories in three major archipelagos: the Greater A ...
, a few drops of the latex is added to milk and used as an emetic.


Other uses

In
Peru , image_flag = Flag of Peru.svg , image_coat = Escudo nacional del Perú.svg , other_symbol = Great Seal of the State , other_symbol_type = Seal (emblem), National seal , national_motto = "Fi ...
, the plant is known as "cimora misha", "timora misha", or "planta magica". It is sometimes added to drinks made from
mescaline Mescaline or mescalin (3,4,5-trimethoxyphenethylamine) is a naturally occurring psychedelic protoalkaloid of the substituted phenethylamine class, known for its hallucinogenic effects comparable to those of LSD and psilocybin. Biological sou ...
-containing
Trichocereus ''Echinopsis'' is a large genus of cacti native to South America, sometimes known as hedgehog cactus, sea-urchin cactus or Easter lily cactus. One small species, ''E. chamaecereus'', is known as the peanut cactus. The 128 species range from lar ...
cacti (although ''Euphorbia tithymaloides'' has no known
psychoactive A psychoactive drug, psychopharmaceutical, psychoactive agent or psychotropic drug is a chemical substance, that changes functions of the nervous system, and results in alterations in perception, mood, consciousness, cognition or behavior. Th ...
properties). In Bengal, India, the species has been known as "rang chita". Kumudranjan Naskar, Plant Wealth of the Lower Ganga Delta: An Eco-taxonomical Approach, Volume2,p. 589. The fast-growing nature of the plant, coupled with its ability to grow in relatively toxic soils, had led scientists in
India India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...
to investigate its usefulness as a "petrocrop", a plant which could yield
biofuel Biofuel is a fuel that is produced over a short time span from biomass, rather than by the very slow natural processes involved in the formation of fossil fuels, such as oil. According to the United States Energy Information Administration (E ...
compounds for
internal combustion engine An internal combustion engine (ICE or IC engine) is a heat engine in which the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion chamber that is an integral part of the working fluid flow circuit. In an internal combus ...
s.Chandra and Kehri, ''Biotechnology of "Va mycorrhiza": Indian Scenario'', 2006, p. 268.


References


Bibliography

* Anderson, Edward F. ''The Cactus Family''. Portland, Ore.: Timber Press, 2001. * Balfour, Edward. ''Cyclopædia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia Commercial, Industrial and Scientific: Products of the Mineral, Vegetable and Animal Kingdoms, Useful Arts and Manufactures''. Madras, India: Scottish & Adelphi Presses, 1873. * Chandra, Sudhir and Kehri, H.K. ''Biotechnology of "Va mycorrhiza": Indian Scenario''. New Delhi: New India Publishing Agency, 2006. * Datta, Subhash Chandra. ''Systematic Botany''. New Delhi: Wiley Eastern Ltd., 1988. * Khare, C.P. ''Indian Medicinal Plants: An Illustrated Dictionary''. Berlin: Springer, 2007. * Liogier, Alain H. and Martorell, Luis F. ''Flora of Puerto Rico and Adjacent Islands: A Systematic Synopsis''. San Juan, P.R.: Editorial de la Universidad de Puerto Rico, 2000.
Millspaugh, Charles Frederick and Hamet, Raymond. ''The Genera "Pedilanthus" and "Cubanthus," and Other American "Euphorbiaceae"''. Chicago: Field Museum of Natural History, 1913.
* Nagda, K.K. and Deshmukh, B. "Hemagglutination Pattern of Galactose Specific Lectin From ''Pedilanthus tithymaloides'' in Diabetes Mellitus." ''Indian Journal of Experimental Biology''. 36 (1998): 426-428. * Nellis, David W. ''Poisonous Plants and Animals of Florida and the Caribbean''. Sarasota, Fla.: Pineapple Press, 1997. * Neumann, Karl-Hermann; Kumar, Ashwani; and Sopory, Sudhir K. ''Recent Advances in Plant Biotechnology and Its Applications''. New Delhi: I.K. International Publishing House, 2008. * Pienaar, Kristo. ''The South African "What Flower Is That?"'' Cape Town: Struik, 2000. * Quattrocchi, Umberto. ''CRC World Dictionary of Plant Names: Common Names, Scientific Names, Eponyms, and Etymology''. New York: CRC Press, 1990. * Sajeva, Maurizio and Costanzo, Mariangela. ''Succulents: The Illustrated Dictionary''. Portland, Ore.: Timber Press, 1994. * Spoerke, David G. and Smolinske, Susan C. ''Toxicity of Houseplants''. New York: CRC Press, 1990. * Steinmann, Victor W. "The Submersion of ''Pedilanthus'' into ''Euphorbia'' (Euphorbiaceae)." ''Acta Botanica Mexicana''. 2003. * Strong, Asa B. ''The American Flora: Or History of Plants and Wild Flowers''. New York: Strong and Bidwell, 1850. * Torkelson, Anthony R. ''The Cross Name Index to Medicinal Plants: Common Names, M-Z''. New York: CRC Press, 1996. * Van Damme, Els J.M. ''Handbook of Plant Lectins: Properties and Biomedical Applications''. Chichester, U.K.: Wiley, 1998. * Vardhana, Rashtra. ''Direct Uses of Medicinal Plants and Their Identification''. New Delhi: Sarup & Sons, 2008. * Wijnands, D.O. ''The Botany of the Commelins''. New York: CRC Press, 1983. {{Taxonbar, from=Q3338078 tithymaloides Plants described in 1753 Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus