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The Escobar Rebellion was a
conflict Conflict may refer to: Arts, entertainment, and media Films * ''Conflict'' (1921 film), an American silent film directed by Stuart Paton * ''Conflict'' (1936 film), an American boxing film starring John Wayne * ''Conflict'' (1937 film) ...
in northern
Mexico Mexico (Spanish: México), officially the United Mexican States, is a country in the southern portion of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States; to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; to the southeast by Guatema ...
in 1929 during the
Maximato The ''Maximato'' was a transitional period in the History of Mexico, historical and political development of Mexico from 1928 to 1934. Named after former president Plutarco Elías Calles's sobriquet ''el Jefe Máximo'' (the maximum leader), the ...
, between the government forces of
President President most commonly refers to: *President (corporate title) *President (education), a leader of a college or university *President (government title) President may also refer to: Automobiles * Nissan President, a 1966–2010 Japanese ful ...
Emilio Portes Gil Emilio Cándido Portes Gil (; 3 October 1890 – 10 December 1978) was President of Mexico from 1928 to 1930, one of three to serve out the six-year term of President-elect General Álvaro Obregón, who had been assassinated in 1928. Since the ...
and rebel forces under the command of General
José Gonzalo Escobar General Don José Gonzalo Escobar (1892–1969) was an officer in the Mexican Army and leader of the failed Escobar Rebellion in 1929, which challenged the political power of Plutarco Elías Calles . Military career Escobar was born in Mazatlán ...
. After some initial success in taking over several key cities in the northern half of the country, the Escobar rebels were decisively defeated in a major battle at Jiménez, Chihuahua, and were eventually swept aside by the advancing government forces under the command of General Calles.


Background

The Escobar Rebellion was the last in a series of rebellions following the end of the Mexican civil war in 1920, when the left wing faction of Plutarco Elías Calles,
Álvaro Obregón Álvaro Obregón Salido (; 17 February 1880 – 17 July 1928) better known as Álvaro Obregón was a Sonoran-born general in the Mexican Revolution. A pragmatic centrist, natural soldier, and able politician, he became the 46th President of Me ...
and
Adolfo de la Huerta Felipe Adolfo de la Huerta Marcor (; 26 May 1881 – 9 July 1955) was a Mexican politician, the 45th President of Mexico from 1 June to 30 November 1920, following the overthrow of Mexican president Venustiano Carranza, with Sonoran generals ...
(collectively known as "The Sonoran Triangle") took control of the federal government from
Venustiano Carranza José Venustiano Carranza de la Garza (; 29 December 1859 – 21 May 1920) was a Mexican wealthy land owner and politician who was Governor of Coahuila when the constitutionally elected president Francisco I. Madero was overthrown in a February ...
under the
Plan of Agua Prieta The Plan of Agua Prieta (Spanish: ''Plan de Agua Prieta)'' was a manifesto, or plan, that articulated the reasons for rebellion against the government of Venustiano Carranza. Three revolutionary generals from Sonora, Álvaro Obregón, Plutarco E ...
. Following the assassination of President-elect Obregón on July 17, 1928, and the end of Calles' term as president on November 30, the former governor of
Tamaulipas Tamaulipas (), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Tamaulipas ( es, Estado Libre y Soberano de Tamaulipas), is a state in the northeast region of Mexico; one of the 31 states which, along with Mexico City, comprise the 32 Federal Entiti ...
, Emilio Portes Gil, was selected unanimously to succeed Calles as provisional president until a new election could be held the following year, in November 1929. As a civilian with no military experience, the selection of Portes Gil upset many officers in the Mexican military, now largely composed of the armies of individual revolutionary leaders, who wanted one of their own in office to continue the tradition of having a general for president. Earlier, Venustiano Carranza had attempted to impose a civilian to succeed him in the 1920 elections, leading to his ouster and death. At the time, one of the Mexican Army's most popular and wealthy officers was General Don José Gonzalo Escobar, who was described as "brave, young and dashing" for his role in defeating
Pancho Villa Francisco "Pancho" Villa (,"Villa"
''Collins English Dictionary''.
; ;
in the 1919 battle for
Ciudad Juárez Ciudad Juárez ( ; ''Juarez City''. ) is the most populous city in the Mexican state of Chihuahua. It is commonly referred to as Juárez and was known as El Paso del Norte (''The Pass of the North'') until 1888. Juárez is the seat of the Ju ...
and for later involvement in crushing the de la Huerta revolt of 1923 and the Gomez-Serrano revolt in 1927. Although Escobar at first proclaimed his loyalty to Calles and his successor, neither president trusted him and both considered Escobar to be high on their list of troublesome generals. As Escobar was assuring Calles and Portes Gil of his loyalty, in secret he made plans to take control of the federal government and establish himself as president. Drafting the "Plan of Hermosillo" late in 1928, Escobar planned to launch his rebellion the following spring, citing corruption in the Calles-Portes Gil government as the reason for the revolt, which was called the "Renovating Revolution" by Escobar and his men. Portes Gil, like Escobar, knew that the success of any rebellion would largely be determined by supplies brought in from across the international border in the United States. Consequently, Portes Gil launched a "two-phase plan" to have the United States government seal the border to any potential rebel needs and also resupply the Mexican Army with war materiel, including modern combat aircraft. Both requests were granted in February 1929, just weeks before the opening of hostilities.


Rebellion

The rebellion officially began on March 3, 1929. Escobar maintained his guise as a loyal subject for as long as he could, having sent a letter to Portes Gil offering his services just hours before leading an attack on the city of
Monterrey Monterrey ( , ) is the capital and largest city of the northeastern state of Nuevo León, Mexico, and the third largest city in Mexico behind Guadalajara and Mexico City. Located at the foothills of the Sierra Madre Oriental, the city is anchor ...
, in
Nuevo Leon Nuevo is the Spanish word for "new". It may refer to: * Nuevo, California, a town in the state of California * Nuevo (band), featuring singer and musician Peter Godwin * Nuevo (Bayamón), a settlement in Puerto Rico * "Nuevo", Spanish-language vers ...
. Many Mexican Army officers defected to join Escobar's rebellion, often taking their entire command with them, so that by the opening of hostilities Escobar was in command of nearly 30,000 men, including a large contingent of
Yaqui The Yaqui, Hiaki, or Yoeme, are a Native American people of the southwest, who speak a Uto-Aztecan language. Their homelands include the Río Yaqui valley in Sonora, Mexico, and the area below the Gila River in Arizona, Southwestern United Stat ...
Indians. After a ten-hour battle Monterrey was under rebel control. Escobar remained in the city just as long as it took to remove $345,000 from local banks and to ransack the home of General
Juan Andreu Almazán Juan Andreu Almazán (May 12, 1891 – October 9, 1965) was a Mexican revolutionary general, politician and businessman. He held high posts in the Mexican Army in the 1920s and ran for the presidency of Mexico in 1940 in a highly disputed elect ...
. From there Escobar retired by way of
Saltillo Saltillo () is the capital and largest city of the northeastern Mexican state of Coahuila and is also the municipal seat of the municipality of the same name. Mexico City, Monterrey, and Saltillo are all connected by a major railroad and highwa ...
, tearing up railroad tracks as he went. Portes Gil moved quickly to crush Escobar's rebellion by putting Calles in command of federal military and naval forces, which consisted of about 72% of Mexico's original ground forces, in addition to the air force and some 5,000 agrarians from
San Luis Potosí San Luis Potosí (), officially the Free and Sovereign State of San Luis Potosí ( es, Estado Libre y Soberano de San Luis Potosí), is one of the 32 states which compose the Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided in 58 municipalities and i ...
. The beginning of the rebellion was set to coincide with the inauguration of
President President most commonly refers to: *President (corporate title) *President (education), a leader of a college or university *President (government title) President may also refer to: Automobiles * Nissan President, a 1966–2010 Japanese ful ...
Herbert Hoover Herbert Clark Hoover (August 10, 1874 – October 20, 1964) was an American politician who served as the 31st president of the United States from 1929 to 1933 and a member of the Republican Party, holding office during the onset of the Gr ...
on March 4, 1929. Escobar hoped that if he could win a few battles and quickly take control of the government that he would receive recognition from Hoover's administration by default, as his foreign policies were not yet defined, but Hoover backed Portes Gil and the established constitution. This had a significant impact on the outcome of the rebellion, according to columnist Drew Pearson, who said that many of the garrisons that defected to join Escorbar's revolt soon deserted back to the federal government after learning of Hoover's decision. Immediately after their capture of Monterrey, Escobar forces further up north moved to take control of the ports of entry along the
Arizona Arizona ( ; nv, Hoozdo Hahoodzo ; ood, Alĭ ṣonak ) is a state in the Southwestern United States. It is the 6th largest and the 14th most populous of the 50 states. Its capital and largest city is Phoenix. Arizona is part of the Fou ...
-
Sonora Sonora (), officially Estado Libre y Soberano de Sonora ( en, Free and Sovereign State of Sonora), is one of the 31 states which, along with Mexico City, comprise the Administrative divisions of Mexico, Federal Entities of Mexico. The state is d ...
border, while further to the south Escobar forces under General Jesus M. Aguirre unsuccessfully attacked
Veracruz Veracruz (), formally Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave (), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave ( es, Estado Libre y Soberano de Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave), is one of the 31 states which, along with Me ...
. Rebels in
Sinaloa Sinaloa (), officially the Estado Libre y Soberano de Sinaloa ( en, Free and Sovereign State of Sinaloa), is one of the 31 states which, along with Mexico City, comprise the Administrative divisions of Mexico, Federal Entities of Mexico. It is d ...
won a significant victory at
Mazatlán Mazatlán () is a city in the Mexican state of Sinaloa. The city serves as the municipal seat for the surrounding ''municipio'', known as the Mazatlán Municipality. It is located at on the Pacific coast, across from the southernmost tip of ...
, where they inflicted "considerable punishment" on retreating government forces and in
Agua Prieta Agua Prieta (English: ''Dark Water'', Opata: ''Bachicuy'') is a town in Agua Prieta Municipality in the northeastern corner of the Mexican state of Sonora. It stands on the Mexico–U.S. border, adjacent to the town of Douglas, Arizona. The mun ...
and Naco, the garrisons revolted to join the rebels, placing the customs collector and other officials in jail. At the same time a force of some 500 rebels occupied
Nogales, Sonora Heroica Nogales (), more commonly known as Nogales, is a city and the county seat of the Municipality of Nogales. It is located on the northern border of the Mexican state of Sonora. The city is abutted on its north by the city of Nogales, Arizo ...
, and succeeded in placing the customs collector, the immigration inspector, the postmaster and other officials under arrest. However, most of those arrested swore allegiance to Escobar and were allowed to return to work shortly thereafter. After successfully taking over the Arizona ports of entry, several border towns on the West Texas frontier quickly came under rebel control. By March 5, rebel forces were in command of Villa Acuña,
Piedras Negras Piedras Negras may refer to: * Piedras Negras, Coahuila, a city in the state of Coahuila, Mexico ** Piedras Negras Municipality, a municipality in Mexico, with the center in the eponymous city * Piedras Negras (Maya site) Piedras Negras is the ...
and
Ojinaga Ojinaga (Manuel Ojinaga) is a town and seat of the municipality of Ojinaga, in the northern Mexican state of Chihuahua. As of 2015, the town had a total population of 28,040. It is a rural border town on the U.S.-Mexico border, with the city ...
, and moving to take control of Ciudad Juárez, Mexico's largest city on the international border and its greatest port of entry, opposite of
El Paso, Texas El Paso (; "the pass") is a city in and the county seat, seat of El Paso County, Texas, El Paso County in the western corner of the U.S. state of Texas. The 2020 population of the city from the United States Census Bureau, U.S. Census Bureau w ...
.


The Battle of Juárez

The Battle of Juárez began a couple of days later in the early morning hours of March 8. Rebel forces under the command of General Marcelino Murrieta quickly swept through the city, forcing the federal garrison back to positions along the
Rio Grande The Rio Grande ( and ), known in Mexico as the Río Bravo del Norte or simply the Río Bravo, is one of the principal rivers (along with the Colorado River) in the southwestern United States and in northern Mexico. The length of the Rio G ...
, adjacent to the international border and thousands of American spectators who had formed up to watch the hostilities from the river's edge, windows and roof tops. Troopers of the 7th Cavalry were also present to protect American lives and prevent the fighting from spilling over to their side of the border. Several stray bullets landed on the American side, causing a few casualties, but nobody was killed. The thirteen-story El Paso bank building was struck so many times that the upper floors had to be evacuated for safety. After hours of heavy fighting along the international border, when it appeared as though the rebels would soon be victorious, the commander of the American forces in El Paso, General
George Van Horn Moseley George Van Horn Moseley (September 28, 1874 – November 7, 1960) was a United States Army general. Following his retirement in 1938, he became controversial for his fiercely anti-immigrant and antisemitic views. Early life and career Moseley ...
, crossed the line into Mexico to confer with the federal commander, General Matias Ramos, to ask about his intentions. General Ramos informed Moseley that he was willing to surrender the city, but only if the rebels guaranteed him and his men proper treatment as prisoners of war, or be allowed to cross into the United States for internment. The latter was agreed upon and by the end of the day some 300 Mexican Army officers and men, along with their wives and children, crossed the border for internment at
Fort Bliss Fort Bliss is a United States Army post in New Mexico and Texas, with its headquarters in El Paso, Texas. Named in honor of William Wallace Smith Bliss, LTC William Bliss (1815–1853), a mathematics professor who was the son-in-law of President ...
. The rebels were now in control of Mexico's most important port of entry, and they intended to use it as a source of weapons and war material and other supplies from the United States.


Air war

During the Escobar Rebellion, both the federal government and the Escobar rebels used aircraft in ways never before seen on the American continent. The air war began on the morning of March 16, 1929, when two federal airplanes dropped bombs on rebel troop trains at the railyard in Torreon and then on the military base just outside town. After the attack, General Escobar realized that he was at a major disadvantage without an air force of his own, so he immediately took steps to acquire aircraft from the United States and American mercenaries to pilot them. The federal government also looked to the United States for supplying aircraft and even hired an American combat veteran named Major Rayma L. Andrews to take command of their new squadron. Major Andrews was a veteran of
World War I World War I (28 July 1914 11 November 1918), often abbreviated as WWI, was one of the deadliest global conflicts in history. Belligerents included much of Europe, the Russian Empire, the United States, and the Ottoman Empire, with fightin ...
, where he served with the
British British may refer to: Peoples, culture, and language * British people, nationals or natives of the United Kingdom, British Overseas Territories, and Crown Dependencies. ** Britishness, the British identity and common culture * British English, ...
Royal Flying Corps "Through Adversity to the Stars" , colors = , colours_label = , march = , mascot = , anniversaries = , decorations ...
. After the war he continued his travels across Latin America, selling airplanes and demonstrating bombing techniques. When the Escobar Rebellion broke out, Andrews offered his services to the Mexican government, which signed a contract with him and tasked him with acquiring new aircraft from the United States, which would be paid for by the Mexican government via depositing money into an account at the El Paso National Bank. Andrews purchased a wide variety of civilian model
biplanes A biplane is a fixed-wing aircraft with two main wings stacked one above the other. The first powered, controlled aeroplane to fly, the Wright Flyer, used a biplane wing arrangement, as did many aircraft in the early years of aviation. While a ...
, including Travel Airs, Eaglerocks, and Steamermans, and later in the conflict he flew some of the
Vought Vought was the name of several related American aerospace firms. These have included, in the past, Lewis and Vought Corporation, Chance Vought, Vought-Sikorsky, LTV Aerospace (part of Ling-Temco-Vought), Vought Aircraft Companies, and Vought Ai ...
"Corsair" warplanes purchased by the Mexican government in February 1929. On the rebel side, General Escobar hired a number of American pilots for $1,000 a week, including Art J. Smith, Pete Stanley, Jack O'Brien, Patrick Murphy and Robert H. Polk, one of two professional revolution followers who made a career of "revolution hopping" across Latin America. Later on these five men were joined by Phil Mohun, another experienced combat veteran that deserted the federal air force to join the revolution and who would eventually emerge as a key member of the rebel air force, which was aptly named the "Yankee Doodle Escadrille". Overall command of the Yankee Doodle Escadrille was given to General Gustavo Salinas, a cultured man who was educated and learned to fly in the United States and who was a veteran of some of the other the Mexican revolutions of the 1920s. The rebel air force consisted of just ten aircraft, all civilian types converted for military use, except for one captured "Corsair". Most were purchased in Arizona and illegally flown into Mexico from airports in
Tucson , "(at the) base of the black ill , nicknames = "The Old Pueblo", "Optics Valley", "America's biggest small town" , image_map = , mapsize = 260px , map_caption = Interactive map ...
and
Phoenix, Arizona Phoenix ( ; nv, Hoozdo; es, Fénix or , yuf-x-wal, Banyà:nyuwá) is the List of capitals in the United States, capital and List of cities and towns in Arizona#List of cities and towns, most populous city of the U.S. state of Arizona, with 1 ...
. Relying on small arms like the
Thompson sub-machine gun The Thompson submachine gun (also known as the "Tommy Gun", "Chicago Typewriter", "Chicago Piano", “Trench Sweeper” or "Trench Broom") is a blowback-operated, air-cooled, magazine-fed selective-fire submachine gun, invented by United Sta ...
and improvised bombs for armaments, the Yankee Doodle Escadrille was ill-suited for all combat roles, but would unhesitatingly attack federal aircraft or bomb enemy troop concentrations, scoring a few victories. One of the first major engagements involving the Yankee Doodle Escadrille was the Battle of Jiménez, which began on March 30 and ended five days later when federal forces took control of the area. During the fighting, seven rebel aircraft faced an unknown number of federal "Corsair" biplanes, resulting in the loss of two rebel aircraft and the capture of a "Corsair" from the federals. The capture of the "Corsair" occurred when Lieutenant Colonel Roberto Fierro approached the rebel lines at Jimenez to drop a few bombs and some propaganda leaflets, which urged the rebels to give up. As Fierro approached the city, Phil Mohun and Robert Polk took off in their vintage biplanes to challenge the enemy. Just as Mohun moved in to open fire, rebel ground forces opened up as well. One bullet struck the plane's carburetor, forcing Fierro to make a sudden emergency landing in enemy territory. Taking the machine gun, Fierro and his observer, a Lieutenant Valle, set off into the surrounding hills, just ahead of a unit of rebel cavalry sent after them. Mohun took credit for the victory and he repaired the captured "Corsair" for his own use. In another engagement, Polk was hit in the face by a bullet and severely damaged his aircraft while attempting to make an emergency landing. Later on, Mohun's plane was "riddled" by machine-gun fire from a "Corsair", forcing him to make a hazardous crash landing, as he was flying without a parachute. The battle eventually turned for the federals when Lt. Col. Fierro dropped bombs on a rebel train car filled with dynamite. The resulting explosion was massive and sent the rebels into a disorderly retreat. Hundreds were subsequently cut down by federal cavalrymen as they tried to escape the slaughter. The Yankee Doodle Escadrille served in all theaters of the conflict, although newspapers indicate that it scored its greatest success in Sonora, during the battles for the ports of entry. During the
siege of Naco The siege of Naco was a major battle fought in the border town of Naco, Sonora, Mexico, between March 31 and April 6, 1929, during the Escobar Rebellion. Following their capture of Cananea in 1928 and the drafting of the "Plan of Hermosillo", rebe ...
, beginning on March 31, a rebel plane allegedly flown by the Irish pilot Patrick Murphy scored two direct hits on federal trenches, killing at least two soldiers, according to a newspaper. Murphy also managed to Bombing of Naco, drop several bombs on the American side of the border, causing a significant amount of damage and a few injuries, as well as making history by committing the first ever aerial bombardment of United States territory. Murphy was eventually shot down by federal ground fire, but he somehow escaped into Arizona. In all, over 100 bombs were dropped by rebel pilots during the battle for Naco, although casualties from these attacks were relatively light. In another engagement on April 4, a federal airplane out bombing rebel positions was shot down by enemy ground fire a few miles south of Naco. Both the aviator and the bomb dropper were killed, and their charred bodies were brought into town under a flag of truce. Out of respect for the dead, General Fausto Topete announced that his pilots would not bomb Naco that evening. Sometime after that, Major Andrews attacked a rebel troop concentration outside of Naco with two 100-pound bombs. When the rebels saw the enemy plane, they ran to take cover underneath the overhanging banks of a dry river, creating the perfect target of men and animals for Andrews. Dropping both of his bombs, Andrews circled around and through the columns of dust he counted eight dead officers along with several enlisted men and their horses.


Surrender at Nogales

Following Escobar's defeat in the Battle of Jiménez, the revolutionary fervor which had taken hold of the country was diminishing and his troops were now deserting in large numbers. Leading his remaining units north into Sonora, he intended to hold out for as long as he could. Government forces under Calles rapidly took control of the cities left in Escobar's wake until finally arriving at Nogales, the rebels' last major stronghold. On the morning of April 30, three federal airplanes dropped twelve bombs over the city. There were no casualties reported, but the sound of the explosions and the return fire from rebel ground forces was enough to cause thousands of Mexicans to flee to the American side of the border for protection. The exodus continued until 3:00 PM, by which time as many as 10,000 Mexican refugees had crossed into Arizona. Fear of additional airstrikes and the realization that the war was lost prompted many of the rebel officers to consider surrendering to the federals or fleeing into the United States, to avoid punishment by the Mexican government. At noon that day, the commander of American forces at
Fort Huachuca Fort Huachuca is a United States Army installation, established on 3 March 1877 as Camp Huachuca. The garrison is now under the command of the United States Army Installation Management Command. It is in Cochise County in southeast Arizona, appr ...
, General Frank S. Cocheu, met with a group of rebel officers at the border in Nogales to negotiate the terms of surrender. The rebels agreed to surrender Nogales, Sonora, but only if the Mexican government promised not to execute or otherwise molest any of the rebel soldiers, and give them food and back pay. All of the conditions were agreed upon, and by the end of the day Nogales was under the control of the government forces of General Lucas González. With the rebellion at an end, General Escobar boarded a plane and flew it into Arizona, where he asked for and received asylum from the American authorities. When asked about his defeat, Escobar blamed the lack of supplies, munitions and support from the United States government. On March 3, 1930, a grand jury in Tucson, Arizona, filed a seven-count suit against Escobar, several of his generals, and members of the Yankee Doodle Escadrille, for "unlawfully exporting arms and munitions of war from the United States to Mexico", but the case was later dismissed on May 25, 1932. Escobar remained in exile in
Canada Canada is a country in North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, covering over , making it the world's second-largest country by tot ...
for the next several years until 1942, shortly after the American entrance into
World War II World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...
, when he returned to Mexico to offer his services to President
Lázaro Cárdenas Lázaro Cárdenas del Río (; 21 May 1895 – 19 October 1970) was a Mexican army officer and politician who served as president of Mexico from 1934 to 1940. Born in Jiquilpan, Michoacán, to a working-class family, Cárdenas joined the M ...
. By 1952 he had achieved the rank of major general in the Mexican Army and was active in politics. He died in
Mexico City Mexico City ( es, link=no, Ciudad de México, ; abbr.: CDMX; Nahuatl: ''Altepetl Mexico'') is the capital and largest city of Mexico, and the most populous city in North America. One of the world's alpha cities, it is located in the Valley o ...
in 1969.


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See also

*
Cristero War The Cristero War ( es, Guerra Cristera), also known as the Cristero Rebellion or es, La Cristiada, label=none, italics=no , was a widespread struggle in central and western Mexico from 1 August 1926 to 21 June 1929 in response to the implementa ...
* List of wars involving Mexico *
Military history of Mexico The military history of Mexico encompasses armed conflicts within that nation's territory, dating from before the arrival of Europeans in 1519 to the present era. Mexican military history is replete with small-scale revolts, foreign invasions, ci ...


References

{{reflist 1929 in Mexico Conflicts in 1929 Wars involving Mexico Civil wars involving the states and peoples of North America