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In ancient Greece, an ''eromenos'' was the younger and passive (or 'receptive') partner in a male homosexual relationship. The partner of an ''eromenos'' was the ''erastes'', the older and active partner. The ''eromenos'' was often depicted as a beautiful, and smaller and more youthful-looking than the ''erastes''.


Terminology

''Erômenos'' (ἐρώμενος) means ‘one who is sexually desired’ in Greek language and is the past participle of the verb ''eramai'', to have sexual desire. In '' Greek Homosexuality'', the first modern scholarly work on this topic,
Kenneth Dover Sir Kenneth James Dover, (11 March 1920 – 7 March 2010) was a distinguished British classical scholar and academic. He was president of Corpus Christi College, Oxford, from 1976 to 1986. In addition, he was president of the British Academy fro ...
used the literal translation of the Greek word as an English word to refer to the passive partner in Greek homosexual relationship. Though in many contexts the younger man is also called ''pais'', ‘boy’, the word can also be used for child, girl, son, daughter and slave, and therefore ''eromenos'' would be more specific and can “avoid the cumbrousness and…imprecision of ‘boy’”. It is in contrast to the masculine active participle erάn (‘be in love with…’, ‘have a passionate desire for’). The word ''erastes'' (lover), however, can be adapted to a married man’s role in both heterosexual and homosexual relationship.


Characteristics

In vase paintings and other artworks, the ''eromenos'' is often depicted as a beautiful young adult. His relatively smaller stature suggests his passive role in the relationship and younger age as well as social status. Usually, they show a combination of a youthful-looking face with a body which possesses mature musculature. The lack of beard and pubic hair are an important clue in identifying an ''eromenos'', though this may possibly be attributed to style. A poem quoted in ''Greek Sexuality'' (couplet 1327f) shows that ‘the poet will never cease to ‘fawn on’ the boy so long as the boy’s cheek is hairless. His specific age is a nuanced issue for the ''eromenos'', and the writer Strato put it: : The youthful bloom of the twelve-year-old gives me joy, but much more desirable is the boy of thirteen. He whose years are fourteen is a still sweeter flower of the Loves, and even more charming is he who is beginning his fifteenth year. The sixteenth year is that of the gods, and to desire the seventeenth does not fall to my lot, but only to Zeus. But if one longs for one still older, he no longer plays, but already demands the Homeric ‘but to him replied.’ Therefore, we can conclude that ''eromenos'' is not a fixed term, as it is only a stage in the development of young Greek men. After they grow up, their relationship with the ''erastes'' could end and they could get married or start another relationship. This experience, similar to some forms of socially-constructed bisexuality, is also shown in books, such as how Bion the Borysthenite condemns Alcibiades, ''that in his adolescence he drew away the husbands from their wives, and as a young man the wives from their husbands.'' According to Garrison, for Cretan boys, the passage to adulthood is the ‘prewedding’ of sex with a mature man.


Representation


Visual art

The image of Ganymede in the figure above is the ideal portrait of an ''eromenos''. The muscles on his body contrasts with the hoop, a child's toy which emphasises the shape of his genitals and inner thighs, and he holds the cockerel, which is the love gift from Zeus. There is no moustache or pubic hair. John Beazley’s three types of erotic scenes appear in Athenian vase paintings. ''Eromenoi'' are often touched on chin and genitals by their ''erastes'' (alpha group), presented with gifts (beta group) or entwined between the thighs of their ''erastes'' (gamma group). Meanwhile, Eva Cantarella discovered that representations of pederastic relationships contain two successive moments of courtship. The first phase is similar to Beazley’s alpha group, while in the second phase the ''eromenos'' stands behind the ''erastes'' with his penis between his thighs, somehow similar to the gamma group. This vase (Brygos Painter) depicts a classical scene of an ''erastes'' courting an ''eromenos''. As the ''eromenos''’ legs are positioned between the ''erastes''’ thighs with the ''erastes'' touching his penis and his chin, it is similar to the alpha group. The pectoral and belly muscles show that he was well-trained in wrestling schools, and the bag of ‘Kydonian apples’ or quinces is a sign of his sexual awakening. Dover and Gundel Koch-Harnack have argued that the gift-giving scene to the ''eromenos'' is in fact a courting scene. Common gifts include a sprig of flowers, a rabbit, and a fighting cock.


Poems and literature

The love for an ''eromenos'' is a frequent topic in Ancient Greek poems. Dover studied poems related to pederasty and quoted some verses expressing love to the eromonos, ‘O boy with the virginal eyes, I seek you, but you do not listen, not knowing that you are the charioteer of my soul!’ Also, A surviving fragment of Solon from the early sixth century B.C. writes that ‘Till he loves a lad in the flower of youth, bewitched by thighs and by sweet lips.’ The graffiti of Thera verified that anal penetration was normal in pederastic relationships, for in the inscriptions, Krimon used the verb ''oipein'' (male sexual act performed as either active or passive partner in Dorian dialect) to describe the intercourse with his ''eromenos'', which indicates anal penetration.Cantarella, Bisexuality in the ''Ancient World'', 26-27. Also, literature suggested that the charm of the ''eromenos'' lay in his attractive anal area, which was described by various metaphors such as rosebud, fruits, figs or gold. It is noteworthy that most of the Greek verses about homosexuality were about how the ''erastes'' longed for the ''eromenos'', but few were written from the perspective of the ''eromenos''.


Myths

The ''erastes-eromenos'' relationship can be not only between humans but also between humans and gods. The love between
Apollo Apollo, grc, Ἀπόλλωνος, Apóllōnos, label=genitive , ; , grc-dor, Ἀπέλλων, Apéllōn, ; grc, Ἀπείλων, Apeílōn, label=Arcadocypriot Greek, ; grc-aeo, Ἄπλουν, Áploun, la, Apollō, la, Apollinis, label= ...
and
Hyacinth Hyacinth or Hyacinthus may refer to: Nature Plants * Hyacinth (plant), genus ''Hyacinthus'' ** '' Hyacinthus orientalis'', common hyacinth * Grape hyacinth, '' Muscari'', a genus of perennial bulbous plants native to Eurasia * Hyacinth bean, ''L ...
was said to have been the archetype of pederasty in Sparta. Apollo fell in love with Hyacinth on account of his youthful beauty, and became his instructor in archery, music, hunting and the gymnasium. Hyacinth was killed by the discus thrown by Apollo when studying discus-throwing with him, and in some versions of myths it was
Zephyr In European tradition, a zephyr is a light wind or a west wind, named after Zephyrus, the Greek god or personification of the west wind. Zephyr may also refer to: Arts and media Fiction Fiction media * ''Zephyr'' (film), a 2010 Turkish ...
(a divinity of the wind) who also loved Hyacinth, and who disturbed the wind to cause this accident. Though usually known as the mortal lover of Aphrodite,
Adonis In Greek mythology, Adonis, ; derived from the Canaanite word ''ʼadōn'', meaning "lord". R. S. P. Beekes, ''Etymological Dictionary of Greek'', Brill, 2009, p. 23. was the mortal lover of the goddess Aphrodite. One day, Adonis was gored by ...
was said to be loved by other gods such as Apollo, Heracles and Dionysus, for his youth and beauty. The ''Homeric Hymn of Aphrodite'' gives an explicit portrait of the erotic relationship between Ganymede and
Zeus Zeus or , , ; grc, Δῐός, ''Diós'', label=Genitive case, genitive Aeolic Greek, Boeotian Aeolic and Doric Greek#Laconian, Laconian grc-dor, Δεύς, Deús ; grc, Δέος, ''Déos'', label=Genitive case, genitive el, Δίας, ''D ...
. Ganymede is a beautiful youth kidnapped by
Zeus Zeus or , , ; grc, Δῐός, ''Diós'', label=Genitive case, genitive Aeolic Greek, Boeotian Aeolic and Doric Greek#Laconian, Laconian grc-dor, Δεύς, Deús ; grc, Δέος, ''Déos'', label=Genitive case, genitive el, Δίας, ''D ...
from
Troy Troy ( el, Τροία and Latin: Troia, Hittite language, Hittite: 𒋫𒊒𒄿𒊭 ''Truwiša'') or Ilion ( el, Ίλιον and Latin: Ilium, Hittite language, Hittite: 𒃾𒇻𒊭 ''Wiluša'') was an ancient city located at Hisarlik in prese ...
and who became immortal on Olympus. He was depicted in ancient vase paintings as the ideal of the ''eromenos''.


Attitudes

The Athenians banned slaves from pursuing courtship of freeborn youths with themselves as the active partner, as ''Against Timarchus'' states that ‘A slave shall not be the lover of a free boy nor follow after him, or else he shall receive fifty blows of the public lash’; but this did not apply to free men. Nevertheless, to be in such a relationship with honour, ''eromenoi'' were supposed to resist the pursuit of their ''erastes'' to test their love, before finally yielding.Cantarella, ''Bisexuality in the Ancient World'', 20. According to Foucault, an ''eromenos'' should avoid being chased too easily, receiving too many gifts or quickly getting into a relationship before the ''erastes'' proved their passion, love and responsibility. Moreover, the perception of pederasty varied in different cities. While it was allowed in Elis and Boeotia, Ionians did not accept pederastic courtship. Athenians held a complicated attitude, as it was considered that Athenian fathers ought to protect their sons from suitors.


Scholarship


Analysis of power structure

Some scholars believe that what the ''eromenoi'' gained from their ''erastes'' were not material rewards, but intellectual and moral edification, as well as learning how to achieve ejaculation, as pederasty was regarded as a process of education and sensual pleasure. For over a millennium, this relationship was the primary way of educating young men of the ruling class in military skills, social values, literature and the arts.Neill, ''The Origins and Role of Same-sex Relations in Human Societies'', 130. Eric Bethe, the first classical scholar to acknowledge Greek homosexuality, believed that the transmission of semen via anal intercourse was regarded as the conduit whereby the noble qualities of tutor-love were passed down to the youth. However,
Michel Foucault Paul-Michel Foucault (, ; ; 15 October 192625 June 1984) was a French philosopher, historian of ideas, writer, political activist, and literary critic. Foucault's theories primarily address the relationship between power and knowledge, and how ...
argued that, according to
Plutarch Plutarch (; grc-gre, Πλούταρχος, ''Ploútarchos''; ; – after AD 119) was a Greek Middle Platonist philosopher, historian, biographer, essayist, and priest at the Temple of Apollo in Delphi. He is known primarily for his ''P ...
, the ''erastes sexual contact was imposed through violence, and the ''eromenos'' could only feel anger, hatred, the desire for revenge and social shame through having become an object of contempt, which he described as ''acharistos''. James Neill reads the relationship between the ''erastes'' and the ''eromenos'' as the younger man's liminal passage into adulthood. The youth attracted heroic noble men by his beauty and virtue, and from among them chose his adult lover, who later tutored him in warrior skills, arts and other knowledge. After the youth acquired these qualities, he would be transformed into an adult.


Comparison with women

In heterosexual erotic images in Ancient Greece, the gender roles of male and female are often depicted as the dominant and subordinate positions. Women are depicted bending over, recumbent, or supported by men positioned upright or on top; while ''eromenoi'' are often depicted as experiencing ‘intercrural sex’ (i.e., between the thighs), with their partners standing face-to-face with them. To ''erastes'', whether the appeal and seduction of the ''eromenos'' lies in their masculinity or femininity is contested. Dover discovered a line of Athenian Kritias quoted by a Roman writer, ‘In males, the most beautiful appearance is that which is female; but in females, the opposite.’ However, due to the lack of specific context and further supporting evidence, we cannot conclude that female characteristics of ''eromenos'' are the stimuli of pederasty. He also found that beardless male and female faces share the same contours, except for the eyes. Some scholars like Eva Cantarella and Cohen found that the lengths of time during which one ought to resist one's suitors' advances were similar in both same-sex and different-sex courtships; since the honour lay not in the refusal, but the choice of which was the best time to give in. Also, Garrison argues that the love of boys by men is emblematic of attitudes prevalent among the ruling class, in which love for women is devalued. The love for ''eromenoi'' can be related to misogyny in Ancient Greece.Cantarella, ''Bisexuality in the Ancient World'', 18. Not all homosexual relationships in Ancient Greece are typified as pederasty or as the ''erastes-eromenos'' relationship. The love between
Achilles and Patroclus The relationship between Achilles and Patroclus is a key element of the stories associated with the Trojan War. Its exact nature—whether homosexual, a non-sexual deep friendship, or something else entirely—has been a subject of dispute in bot ...
might be a counterargument to pederasty, for both of them showed their masculinity in this heroic, blood-brother like relationship, and were around the same age, with Patroclus only slightly older than Achilles.


Later depictions

The 20th-century English and South African writer
Mary Renault Eileen Mary Challans (4 September 1905 – 13 December 1983), known by her pen name Mary Renault ("She always pronounced it 'Ren-olt', though almost everyone would come to speak of her as if she were a French car." ), was an English writer best ...
was famous for her romantic novels on pederasty in Ancient Greece. Her novel ''
The Last of the Wine ''The Last of the Wine'' is Mary Renault's first novel set in ancient Greece, the setting that would become her most important arena. The novel was published in 1956 and is the second of her works to feature male homosexuality as a major them ...
'' (1956) tells the love story of Alexias, a beautiful and noble Athenian youth and Socrates’ student who was chased by a number of older men because of his beauty. Bernard F. Dick commented on her novels that they provided historically accurate representation of Greek homosexuality. Her fan community also created artworks that imitate Greek vase paintings portraying courting scenes between the ''erastes'' and ''eromenos''.


See also

*
Pederasty in ancient Greece Pederasty in ancient Greece was a socially acknowledged romantic relationship between an older male (the ''erastes'') and a younger male (the ''eromenos'') usually in his teens. It was characteristic of the Archaic Greece, Archaic and Classical G ...
*
Homosexuality in ancient Greece In classical antiquity, writers such as Herodotus, Plato, Xenophon, Athenaeus and many others explored aspects of homosexuality in Greek society. The most widespread and socially significant form of same-sex sexual relations in ancient Greece amo ...
*
Homosexuality in the militaries of ancient Greece Homosexuality in the militaries of ancient Greece was regarded as contributing to morale. Although the primary example is the Sacred Band of Thebes, a unit said to have been formed of same-sex couples, the Spartan tradition of military heroism ha ...
* ''Greek Homosexuality''


References


Selected bibliography

Cantarella, Eva. ''Bisexuality in the Ancient World''. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994. Dover, Kenneth James. ''Greek Homosexuality''. Updated and with a New Postcript. ed. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1989. Foucault, Michel. ''The History of Sexuality''. 1st American ed. New York: Pantheon Books, 1978. Garrison, Daniel H. ''Sexual Culture in Ancient Greece''. Oklahoma Series in Classical Culture; v. 24. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2000. Masterson, Mark, Nancy Sorkin Rabinowitz, and James Robson. ''Sex in Antiquity: Exploring Gender and Sexuality in the Ancient World. Rewriting Antiquity''. Abingdon, Oxon; New York, NY: Routledge, 2015. Neill, James. ''The Origins and Role of Same-sex Relations in Human Societies''. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland &, 2009. Percy, William A. ''Pederasty and Pedagogy in Archaic Greece''. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1996. Sissa, Giulia. ''Sex and Sensuality in the Ancient World''. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008. Pederasty in ancient Greece Gender studies Ancient Greece Male homosexuality Philosophy of love Sexuality and gender identity-based cultures Sexuality and society