![Capitano Federico Ciccodicola](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Capitano_Federico_Ciccodicola.jpg)
The Royal Corps Of Eritrean Colonial Troops were indigenous soldiers from
Eritrea
Eritrea ( ; ti, ኤርትራ, Ertra, ; ar, إرتريا, ʾIritriyā), officially the State of Eritrea, is a country in the Horn of Africa region of Eastern Africa, with its capital and largest city at Asmara. It is bordered by Ethiopia ...
, who were enrolled as
askari
An askari (from Somali, Swahili and Arabic , , meaning "soldier" or "military", which also means "police" in the Somali language) was a local soldier serving in the armies of the European colonial powers in Africa, particularly in the African G ...
s in the
Royal Corps of Colonial Troops
The Royal Corps of Colonial Troops ( it, Regio Corpo Truppe Coloniali or RCTC) was a corps of the Italian Armed Forces, in which all the Italian colonial troops were grouped until the end of World War II in Africa.
History
Many of the Askaris in ...
(''Regio Corpo di Truppe Coloniali'') of the
Royal Italian Army
The Royal Italian Army ( it, Regio Esercito, , Royal Army) was the land force of the Kingdom of Italy, established with the proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy. During the 19th century Italy started to unify into one country, and in 1861 Manfre ...
(''Regio Esercito'') during the period 1889–1941.
Characteristics
These regular troops played an important role in the initial conquest of the various colonial possessions of the
Kingdom of Italy
The Kingdom of Italy ( it, Regno d'Italia) was a state that existed from 1861, when Victor Emmanuel II of Kingdom of Sardinia, Sardinia was proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy, proclaimed King of Italy, until 1946, when civil discontent led to ...
. They subsequently acted as garrison and internal security forces in the
Italian Empire
The Italian colonial empire ( it, Impero coloniale italiano), known as the Italian Empire (''Impero Italiano'') between 1936 and 1943, began in Africa in the 19th century and comprised the colonies, protectorates, concessions and dependencie ...
, and finally served in large numbers during the
Italian conquest of British Somaliland
The Italian invasion of British Somaliland (3–19 August 1940) was part of the East African campaign (1940–1941) in which Italian, Eritrean and Somali forces of Fascist Italy entered British Somaliland and defeated its combined garrison o ...
and the
East Africa
East Africa, Eastern Africa, or East of Africa, is the eastern subregion of the African continent. In the United Nations Statistics Division scheme of geographic regions, 10-11-(16*) territories make up Eastern Africa:
Due to the historical ...
n campaign of 1940-41 .
History
''Except for the German parachute division in Italy and the Japanese in Burma no enemy with whom the British and Indian troops were matched put up a finer fight than those Savoia battalions at Keren (Eritrea). Moreover, the Colonial troops, until they cracked at the very end, fought with valour and resolution, and their staunchness was a testimony to the excellence of the Italian administration and military training in Eritrea''
The Italian Army made extensive use of locally recruited indigenous soldiers in
Italian East Africa
Italian East Africa ( it, Africa Orientale Italiana, AOI) was an Italian colony in the Horn of Africa. It was formed in 1936 through the merger of Italian Somalia, Italian Eritrea, and the newly occupied Ethiopian Empire, conquered in the S ...
. These troops comprised infantry, cavalry and some light artillery units. They were recruited initially from
Eritreans
Eritreans are the native inhabitants of Eritrea, as well as the global diaspora of Eritrea. Eritreans constitute several component ethnic groups, some of which are related to ethnic groups that make up the Ethiopian people in neighboring Ethiop ...
and subsequently from
Somalis, with Italian officers and some non-commissioned officers. The Italian
Askaris fought in the
First Italo–Ethiopian War
The First Italo-Ethiopian War, lit. ''Abyssinian War'' was fought between Italy and Ethiopia from 1895 to 1896. It originated from the disputed Treaty of Wuchale, which the Italians claimed turned Ethiopia into an Italian protectorate. Full-s ...
, the
Italian-Turkish War
The Italo-Turkish or Turco-Italian War ( tr, Trablusgarp Savaşı, "Tripolitanian War", it, Guerra di Libia, "War of Libya") was fought between the Kingdom of Italy and the Ottoman Empire from 29 September 1911, to 18 October 1912. As a result o ...
, the
Second Italo-Abyssinian War
The Second Italo-Ethiopian War, also referred to as the Second Italo-Abyssinian War, was a war of aggression which was fought between Italy and Ethiopia from October 1935 to February 1937. In Ethiopia it is often referred to simply as the Itali ...
and World War II (
East African Campaign).
Out of a total of 256,000 Italian troops serving in Italian East Africa in 1940, about 182,000 were recruited from
Italian Eritrea
Italian Eritrea ( it, Colonia Eritrea, "Colony of Eritrea") was a colony of the Kingdom of Italy in the territory of present-day Eritrea. The first Italian establishment in the area was the purchase of Assab by the Rubattino Shipping Company in ...
,
Italian Somalia
Italian Somalia ( it, Somalia Italiana; ar, الصومال الإيطالي, Al-Sumal Al-Italiy; so, Dhulka Talyaaniga ee Soomaalida), was a protectorate and later colony of the Kingdom of Italy in present-day Somalia. Ruled in the 19th centur ...
and the just recently occupied (1935–36)
Ethiopia
Ethiopia, , om, Itiyoophiyaa, so, Itoobiya, ti, ኢትዮጵያ, Ítiyop'iya, aa, Itiyoppiya officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is a landlocked country in the Horn of Africa. It shares borders with Eritrea to the ...
. In January 1941, Commonwealth and Free French forces
invaded Italian-occupied Ethiopia and the majority of the newly recruited Ethiopian Ascaris serving with the Italian Army in East Africa deserted. Most of the Eritrean Ascaris however remained loyal until the Italian surrender four months later.
Development of the ''Ascari''
The name
"ascar" is the Arab word for "soldier". The Eritrean Ascari originated from a mercenary Arab group employed by the
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire, * ; is an archaic version. The definite article forms and were synonymous * and el, Оθωμανική Αυτοκρατορία, Othōmanikē Avtokratoria, label=none * info page on book at Martin Luther University) ...
and called ''
Basci Buzuks''. This irregular force was created in Eritrea by the
Albania
Albania ( ; sq, Shqipëri or ), or , also or . officially the Republic of Albania ( sq, Republika e Shqipërisë), is a country in Southeastern Europe. It is located on the Adriatic and Ionian Seas within the Mediterranean Sea and shares ...
n adventurer Sagiak Hassan, who worked for local Eritrean tribes in the second half of the 19th century.
In 1885 the Italian colonel Tancredi Saletta, commanding officer of the Italian troops during the conquest of Eritrea, brought the Basci Buzuks (with their armaments and families) into Italian service as irregular auxiliaries. In 1889 the first four regular battalions of Eritrean soldiers were created in
Asmara
Asmara ( ), or Asmera, is the capital and most populous city of Eritrea, in the country's Central Region. It sits at an elevation of , making it the sixth highest capital in the world by altitude and the second highest capital in Africa. The ...
. Those Eritrean troops were incorporated into the Italian colonial Army with the name ''Ascari''. They were successfully used in battle by the Italians, for the first time, against the
Dervisci in
Sudan
Sudan ( or ; ar, السودان, as-Sūdān, officially the Republic of the Sudan ( ar, جمهورية السودان, link=no, Jumhūriyyat as-Sūdān), is a country in Northeast Africa. It shares borders with the Central African Republic t ...
.
Initially the Eritrean Ascari comprised only
infantry
Infantry is a military specialization which engages in ground combat on foot. Infantry generally consists of light infantry, mountain infantry, motorized infantry & mechanized infantry, airborne infantry, air assault infantry, and marine i ...
battalions, although Eritrean cavalry squadrons (''Penne di Falco'') and mountain artillery batteries were subsequently raised. By 1922 units of
camel cavalry
Camel cavalry, or camelry (french: méharistes, ), is a generic designation for armed forces using camels as a means of transportation. Sometimes warriors or soldiers of this type also fought from camel-back with spears, bows or rifles.
Came ...
called "meharisti" had been added. Those Eritrean camel units were also deployed in
Libya
Libya (; ar, ليبيا, Lībiyā), officially the State of Libya ( ar, دولة ليبيا, Dawlat Lībiyā), is a country in the Maghreb region in North Africa. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Egypt to Egypt–Libya bo ...
after 1932. During the 1930s
Benito Mussolini
Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini (; 29 July 188328 April 1945) was an Italian politician and journalist who founded and led the National Fascist Party. He was Prime Minister of Italy from the March on Rome in 1922 until his deposition in 194 ...
added some
armored cars units to the Ascari.
Prior to
World War I
World War I (28 July 1914 11 November 1918), often abbreviated as WWI, was one of the deadliest global conflicts in history. Belligerents included much of Europe, the Russian Empire, the United States, and the Ottoman Empire, with fightin ...
service with the Ascari had become the main source of paid employment for the indigenous male population of Eritrea. During the expansion required by the Italian invasion of Ethiopia in 1936, 40% of eligible Eritreans were enrolled in these colonial troops.
Uniforms and ranks
![Squadronebianco appello](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/Squadronebianco_appello.jpg)
Until 1915 Eritrean units wore white uniforms comprising long coats and loosely cut trousers for all occasions.
Khaki drill
Khaki drill (KD) is the British military term for a type of fabric and the military uniforms made from them.
History
Khaki colour uniforms were first introduced in 1848 in the British Indian Army Corps of Guides. As well as the Corps of Gui ...
clothing was subsequently adopted for active service and ordinary duties, though the white uniforms were retained for ceremonial duties.
Eritrean regiments in Italian service wore high red
fezzes with coloured tufts and waist sashes that varied according to each unit. As examples, the 17th Eritrean Battalion had black and white tufts and vertically striped sashes; while the 64th Eritrean Battalion wore both of these items in scarlet and purple.
The Eritrean Ascari had the following ranks, from simple soldier to senior non commissioned officer: ''Ascari'' - ''Muntaz'' (corporal) - ''Bulukbasci'' (lance-sergeant) - ''Sciumbasci'' (sergeant). The ''Sciumbasci-capos'' (staff-sergeants) were the senior Eritrean non-commissioned officers and were chosen according to their fighting performance in battle. All of the commissioned officers of the Eritrean Ascari were Italian, who wore similar uniforms and insignia to their counterparts in the regular Italian Army
Performance in battle
![Keren Battlefield 008](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Keren_Battlefield_008.jpg)
The Eritrean Ascari were considered the best of Italy's colonial soldiers, with a reputation similar to that of the
Gurkha
The Gurkhas or Gorkhas (), with endonym Gorkhali ), are soldiers native to the Indian subcontinent, Indian Subcontinent, chiefly residing within Nepal and some parts of Northeast India.
The Gurkha units are composed of Nepalis and Indian Go ...
s in the forces of the
British Empire
The British Empire was composed of the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates, and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It began with the overseas possessions and trading posts esta ...
. They were accordingly widely employed in other Italian colonial possessions in Africa. Eritrean NCOs were seconded to newly raised Somali and Ethiopian units after 1936.
Notable events in the history of Italy's Eritrean Ascaris included:
#
First Battle of Agordat
The First Battle of Agordat, the first battle between Italy and Mahdist Sudan, took place on June 27, 1890. Violence began when a force of one-thousand Mahdists attacked tribes that had signed protectorates with the Kingdom of Italy." After that, ...
- (
Mahdist War
The Mahdist War ( ar, الثورة المهدية, ath-Thawra al-Mahdiyya; 1881–1899) was a war between the Mahdist Sudanese of the religious leader Muhammad Ahmad bin Abd Allah, who had proclaimed himself the "Mahdi" of Islam (the "Guided On ...
)
#
Second Battle of Agordat
The Second Battle of Agordat was fought in late December 1893, between Italian colonial troops and Mahdists from the Sudan. Emir Ahmed Ali campaigned against the Italian forces in eastern Sudan and led about 10–12,000 men east from Kassala. T ...
- (
Mahdist War
The Mahdist War ( ar, الثورة المهدية, ath-Thawra al-Mahdiyya; 1881–1899) was a war between the Mahdist Sudanese of the religious leader Muhammad Ahmad bin Abd Allah, who had proclaimed himself the "Mahdi" of Islam (the "Guided On ...
)
#
Battle of Kassala
The Battle of Kassala was fought on July 17, 1894, between an Italian colonial troop and Mahdist Sudanese forces.
Prelude
Governor Oreste Baratieri sought to capture Kassala, to forestall Mahdist attacks on Eritrea. In July 1894, Baratieri sa ...
- (Mahdist War)
#
Battle of Coatit
The Battle of Coatit was fought on 13 January 1895 between Italy and Ethiopian proxies led by Tigrayan warlord Ras Mengesha Yohannes in what is now Eritrea. It was the opening battle of the First Italo–Ethiopian War, and was a significant vi ...
- (
First Ethiopian War)
# About six thousand Eritrean Ascaris, serving in both infantry and artillery units, were present at the
Battle of Adwa
The Battle of Adwa (; ti, ውግእ ዓድዋ; , also spelled ''Adowa'') was the climactic battle of the First Italo-Ethiopian War. The Ethiopian forces defeated the Italian invading force on Sunday 1 March 1896, near the town of Adwa. The de ...
where they fought against 120,000
Ethiopia
Ethiopia, , om, Itiyoophiyaa, so, Itoobiya, ti, ኢትዮጵያ, Ítiyop'iya, aa, Itiyoppiya officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is a landlocked country in the Horn of Africa. It shares borders with Eritrea to the ...
ns on 1 March 1896. Of these, 2,000 ascari were killed and 800 were captured and mutilated by having their right hands and left feet amputated by the victorious Ethiopians, who considered them to be traitors.
# In the
Italian conquest of Ethiopia
The Second Italo-Ethiopian War, also referred to as the Second Italo-Abyssinian War, was a war of aggression which was fought between Italy and Ethiopia from October 1935 to February 1937. In Ethiopia it is often referred to simply as the Itali ...
(1935–1936) the veteran Eritrean Ascaris, with their high morale and aggressive spirit, played a key role, often taking the lead during attacks. About 60,000 Eritreans served in both regular ascari units and in irregular bands. Nearly 5,000 Eritrean Ascaris were killed in this war.
# During
World War II
World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...
a number of Eritrean Ascari were awarded the Gold Medal for Military Honor at both the
Battle of Cheren
The Battle of Keren ( it, Battaglia di Cheren) took place from 3 February to 27 March 1941. Keren was attacked by the British during the East African Campaign of the Second World War. A force of Italian regular and colonial troops defended th ...
and at the
Amba Alagi
Imba Alaje is a mountain, or an amba, in northern Ethiopia. Located in the Debubawi Zone of the Tigray Region, Imba Alaje dominates the roadway that runs past it from the city of Mek'ele south to Maychew. Because of its strategic location, Emba ...
. Some of the remaining Ascari fought with lieutenant
Amedeo Guillet
Baron Amedeo Guillet (February 7, 1909 – June 16, 2010) was an officer of the Italian Army and an Italian Diplomat. Dying at the age of 101, he was one of the last men to have commanded cavalry in war. He was nicknamed ''Devil Commander'' a ...
in his
Italian guerrilla against the
Allies
An alliance is a relationship among people, groups, or states that have joined together for mutual benefit or to achieve some common purpose, whether or not explicit agreement has been worked out among them. Members of an alliance are called ...
after the Italian Army surrender in
Gondar
Gondar, also spelled Gonder (Amharic: ጎንደር, ''Gonder'' or ''Gondär''; formerly , ''Gʷandar'' or ''Gʷender''), is a city and woreda in Ethiopia. Located in the North Gondar Zone of the Amhara Region, Gondar is north of Lake Tana on t ...
in November 1941.
Amedeo Guillet and his "Gruppo Bande Eritrea"
One of the most famous Italian officers who commanded groups of Eritrean Ascari in Ethiopia and Eritrea was
Amedeo Guillet
Baron Amedeo Guillet (February 7, 1909 – June 16, 2010) was an officer of the Italian Army and an Italian Diplomat. Dying at the age of 101, he was one of the last men to have commanded cavalry in war. He was nicknamed ''Devil Commander'' a ...
.
![Guillet - Squadroni Amhara 1940](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/Guillet_-_Squadroni_Amhara_1940.jpg)
At the beginning of World War II the Italian Viceroy
Amedeo Duke of Aosta gave lieutenant Guillet command of the 2,500 strong ''Gruppo Bande Eritrea'', an irregular unit made up mainly of recruits from
Hamasien
The Provinces of Eritrea existed between Eritrea's incorporation as a colony of Italy until the conversion of the provinces into administrative regions.
Overview
In Italian Eritrea, the Italian colonial administration had divided the colony into e ...
. This force was primarily a cavalry one, but also included camel mounted troops and some
Yemen
Yemen (; ar, ٱلْيَمَن, al-Yaman), officially the Republic of Yemen,, ) is a country in Western Asia. It is situated on the southern end of the Arabian Peninsula, and borders Saudi Arabia to the Saudi Arabia–Yemen border, north and ...
i infantry led by Eritrean Ascari NCOs.
At the end of 1940 the Allied forces faced Guillet on the road to
Amba Alagi
Imba Alaje is a mountain, or an amba, in northern Ethiopia. Located in the Debubawi Zone of the Tigray Region, Imba Alaje dominates the roadway that runs past it from the city of Mek'ele south to Maychew. Because of its strategic location, Emba ...
close to Cherù. He was charged with the task of slowing the
Allied
An alliance is a relationship among people, groups, or states that have joined together for mutual benefit or to achieve some common purpose, whether or not explicit agreement has been worked out among them. Members of an alliance are called ...
advance from the North-West. His Eritrean ascaris had some success in doing this but suffered many casualties. Guillet's most important battle happened towards the end of January 1941 at Cherù when he decided to attack enemy
armoured units
Armoured warfare or armored warfare (mechanized forces, armoured forces or armored forces) (American English; see spelling differences), is the use of armored fighting vehicles in modern warfare. It is a major component of modern methods of ...
. At dawn the ''Gruppo Bande Tigre'', armed only with sabres, rifles and hand grenades charged an Allied column which included armoured vehicles. They passed unhurt through the Allied force who were caught unaware. Guillet then turned to charge again. In the meantime however, the Allies had organised themselves and fired horizontally with their howitzers, inflicting heavy losses on the Italian-led troops and their horses. This was the last cavalry charge
Commonwealth forces faced and the last but one in the history of Italian cavalry.
Guillet's Eritrean ascaris suffered losses of about 800 in little more than two years. In March 1941 his forces found themselves stranded outside the Italian lines. Guillet began a private war against the Allies. Hiding his uniform near a farm owned by Italian colonists, he conducted guerrilla raids with his remaining askaris against Allied forces for almost eight months. He was one of the most famous Italian "guerrilla officers" in
Eritrea
Eritrea ( ; ti, ኤርትራ, Ertra, ; ar, إرتريا, ʾIritriyā), officially the State of Eritrea, is a country in the Horn of Africa region of Eastern Africa, with its capital and largest city at Asmara. It is bordered by Ethiopia ...
and northern Ethiopia during the
Italian guerrilla war, a failed attempt to prevent
Italian East Africa
Italian East Africa ( it, Africa Orientale Italiana, AOI) was an Italian colony in the Horn of Africa. It was formed in 1936 through the merger of Italian Somalia, Italian Eritrea, and the newly occupied Ethiopian Empire, conquered in the S ...
from being dissolved.
Eritrean Ascari after World War II
Many Eritrean Ascari fought for the independence of Eritrea after WWII. Among these was
Hamid Idris Awate
Hamid Idris Awate (10 April 1910 – 28 May 1962) was the founder of the Eritrean Army (the armed wing of the Eritrean Liberation Front), and a symbol of the Eritrean struggle for independence.
Early life in Italian Eritrea
Awate was born in 19 ...
, nicknamed the ''Father of Eritrea'' because he fired the first shots of the
Eritrean War of Independence
The Eritrean War of Independence was a war for independence which Eritrean independence fighters waged against successive Ethiopian governments from 1 September 1961 to 24 May 1991.
Eritrea was an Italian colony from the 1880s until the d ...
against the Ethiopians.
After the official end of the
Italian Empire
The Italian colonial empire ( it, Impero coloniale italiano), known as the Italian Empire (''Impero Italiano'') between 1936 and 1943, began in Africa in the 19th century and comprised the colonies, protectorates, concessions and dependencie ...
in 1947, the Italian government had created organizations dedicated to the welfare of former Ascaris living in Italy and Eritrea.
In 1950 the Italian authorities created a
pension fund for nearly 140,000 Eritrean Ascari who had served in the Italian Colonial Army. Even if the amount was minimal (the equivalent of $100 yearly), this was paid through the Italian Embassy in Asmara and was of some value in the underdeveloped economy of Eritrea after World War II.
During the 1992-93
UN Intervention in the Somali civil war, an elderly Ascari joined an Italian unit with his original uniform and rifle, stating that he had sworn a lifetime oath to "Italy, to the King and to the Duce." By the end of the mission he had been given the rank of marshal.
In 1993, 1,100 Ascari were still living in Eritrea. By 2006 only 260 were known to still be alive. One surviving ascari, Beraki Ghebreslasie, lives in
Rome
, established_title = Founded
, established_date = 753 BC
, founder = King Romulus (legendary)
, image_map = Map of comune of Rome (metropolitan city of Capital Rome, region Lazio, Italy).svg
, map_caption ...
.
Beraki and old Ascari photos (in Italian)
/ref>
See also
* Bands (Italian Army irregulars)
Bands ( it, Bande) was in Italian military term for irregular forces, composed normally of foreigners or natives, with some Italian officers and NCOs in command. These units were employed by the Italian Army as auxiliaries to the regular nationa ...
* Eritrea
Eritrea ( ; ti, ኤርትራ, Ertra, ; ar, إرتريا, ʾIritriyā), officially the State of Eritrea, is a country in the Horn of Africa region of Eastern Africa, with its capital and largest city at Asmara. It is bordered by Ethiopia ...
* Italian Eritreans
* Dubats
Dubat (Arabic: العمائم البيضاء(دُوب عد); ḍubbāṭ: English: ''White turban'') was the designation given to members of the semi-regular armed bands employed by the Italian " Royal Corps of Colonial Troops" (''Regio Corpo di ...
* Zaptié Zaptié was the designation given to locally raised gendarmerie units in the Italian colonies of Tripolitania, Cyrenaica (later Italian Libya), Eritrea and Somaliland between 1889 and 1943.
Origins and duties
The word "zaptié" is derived from t ...
* Italian Empire
The Italian colonial empire ( it, Impero coloniale italiano), known as the Italian Empire (''Impero Italiano'') between 1936 and 1943, began in Africa in the 19th century and comprised the colonies, protectorates, concessions and dependencie ...
* Hamid Idriss Awate
Hamid Idris Awate (10 April 1910 – 28 May 1962) was the founder of the Eritrean Army (the armed wing of the Eritrean Liberation Front), and a symbol of the Eritrean struggle for independence.
Early life in Italian Eritrea
Awate was born in 19 ...
* Amedeo Guillet
Baron Amedeo Guillet (February 7, 1909 – June 16, 2010) was an officer of the Italian Army and an Italian Diplomat. Dying at the age of 101, he was one of the last men to have commanded cavalry in war. He was nicknamed ''Devil Commander'' a ...
Notes
References
Bibliography
* Bereketeab, R. ''Eritrea: The making of a Nation''. Uppsala University. Uppsala, 2000.
* Lowe, C.J. ''Italian Foreign Policy 1870–1940''. Routledge. 2002.
*
* Negash, Tekeste. ''Italian colonialism in Eritrea 1882-1941 (Politics, Praxis and Impact)''. Uppsala University. Uppsala, 1987.
* Shillington, Kevin. ''Encyclopedia of African History''. CRC Press. London, 2005.
Volterra, Alessandro. "Sudditi coloniali< Ascari eritrei 1935-1941". FranAngeli, Milano, 2005
External links
The Museum of the Ascari
Institute of Eritrean Culture
Website dedicated to the Eritrean Ascari
Ascari of Eritrea
Collection of about 200 pictures listed by categories
{{Italian colonial empire
Military history of Italy
History of Eritrea
Italian East Africa
eritrean