Human factors and ergonomics (commonly referred to as human factors) is the application of psychological and physiological principles to the engineering and design of products, processes, and systems. Four primary goals of human factors learning are to reduce
human error
Human error refers to something having been done that was " not intended by the actor; not desired by a set of rules or an external observer; or that led the task or system outside its acceptable limits".Senders, J.W. and Moray, N.P. (1991) Human ...
, increase productivity, and enhance safety, system availability, and comfort with a specific focus on the interaction between the human and the engineered system.
The field is a combination of numerous disciplines, such as
psychology
Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior. Psychology includes the study of conscious and unconscious phenomena, including feelings and thoughts. It is an academic discipline of immense scope, crossing the boundaries betwe ...
,
sociology
Sociology is a social science that focuses on society, human social behavior, patterns of Interpersonal ties, social relationships, social interaction, and aspects of culture associated with everyday life. It uses various methods of Empirical ...
,
engineering
Engineering is the use of scientific method, scientific principles to design and build machines, structures, and other items, including bridges, tunnels, roads, vehicles, and buildings. The discipline of engineering encompasses a broad rang ...
,
biomechanics
Biomechanics is the study of the structure, function and motion of the mechanical aspects of biological systems, at any level from whole organisms to organs, cells and cell organelles, using the methods of mechanics. Biomechanics is a branch of ...
,
industrial design
Industrial design is a process of design applied to physical Product (business), products that are to be manufactured by mass production. It is the creative act of determining and defining a product's form and features, which takes place in advan ...
,
physiology
Physiology (; ) is the scientific study of functions and mechanisms in a living system. As a sub-discipline of biology, physiology focuses on how organisms, organ systems, individual organs, cells, and biomolecules carry out the chemical ...
,
anthropometry
Anthropometry () refers to the measurement of the human individual. An early tool of physical anthropology, it has been used for identification, for the purposes of understanding human physical variation, in paleoanthropology and in various atte ...
,
interaction design
Interaction design, often abbreviated as IxD, is "the practice of designing interactive digital products, environments, systems, and services." Beyond the digital aspect, interaction design is also useful when creating physical (non-digital) produ ...
,
visual design
Communication design is a mixed discipline between design and information-development which is concerned with how media communicate with people. A communication design approach is not only concerned with developing the message in addition to the ...
,
user experience, and
user interface design
User interface (UI) design or user interface engineering is the design of user interfaces for machines and software, such as computers, home appliances, mobile devices, and other electronic devices, with the focus on maximizing usability and the ...
. Human factors research employs methods and approaches from these and other knowledge disciplines to study human behavior and generate data relevant to the four primary goals above. In studying and sharing learning on the design of equipment, devices, and processes that fit the human body and its
cognitive
Cognition refers to "the mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses". It encompasses all aspects of intellectual functions and processes such as: perception, attention, thought, ...
abilities, the two terms "human factors" and "ergonomics" are essentially synonymous their
referent
A referent () is a person or thing to which a name – a linguistic expression or other symbol – refers. For example, in the sentence ''Mary saw me'', the referent of the word ''Mary'' is the particular person called Mary who is being spoken of, ...
and
meaning in current literature.
ISO 6385
The International Standard ISO 6385 "Ergonomic principles in the design of work systems" is published by the International Organization for Standardization and was last revised in 2016.
As the standard states in the 'Scope' section: “This Inter ...
defines "ergonomics" and the "study of human factors" similarly, as the "scientific discipline concerned with the understanding of interactions among humans and other elements of a system, and the profession that applies theory, principles and methods to design to optimize overall human performance."
The
International Ergonomics Association
The International Ergonomics Association (IEA) is a federation of fifty-two individual ergonomics organizations from around the world. IEA was formed in 1959.
The mission of the IEA is to elaborate and advance ergonomics science and practice, and ...
defines ergonomics or human factors as follows:
[International Ergonomics Association]
''Human Factors/Ergonomics (HF/E)''
Website. Retrieved 7 June 2020.
Human factors is employed to fulfill the goals of
occupational health and safety
Occupational safety and health (OSH), also commonly referred to as occupational health and safety (OHS), occupational health, or occupational safety, is a multidisciplinary field concerned with the safety, health, and welfare of people at wor ...
and
productivity
Productivity is the efficiency of production of goods or services expressed by some measure. Measurements of productivity are often expressed as a ratio of an aggregate output to a single input or an aggregate input used in a production proces ...
. It is relevant in the design of such things as safe furniture and easy-to-use interfaces to machines and equipment. Proper ergonomic design is necessary to prevent
repetitive strain injuries
A repetitive strain injury (RSI) is an injury to part of the musculoskeletal or nervous system caused by repetitive use, vibrations, compression or long periods in a fixed position. Other common names include repetitive stress disorders, cumula ...
and other
musculoskeletal disorder
Musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) are injuries or pain in the human musculoskeletal system, including the joints, ligaments, muscles, nerves, tendons, and structures that support limbs, neck and back. MSDs can arise from a sudden exertion (e.g., li ...
s, which can develop over time and can lead to long-term disability. Human factors and ergonomics are concerned with the "fit" between the user, equipment, and environment or "fitting a job to a person" or "fitting the task to the man". It accounts for the user's capabilities and limitations in seeking to ensure that tasks, functions, information, and the environment suit that user.
To assess the fit between a person and the used technology, human factors specialists or ergonomists consider the job (activity) being done and the demands on the user; the equipment used (its size, shape, and how appropriate it is for the task), and the information used (how it is presented, accessed, and changed). Ergonomics draws on many disciplines in its study of humans and their environments, including anthropometry, biomechanics, mechanical engineering,
industrial engineering
Industrial engineering is an engineering profession that is concerned with the optimization of complex process (engineering), processes, systems, or organizations by developing, improving and implementing integrated systems of people, money, kno ...
, industrial design,
information design
Information design is the practice of presenting information in a way that fosters an efficient and effective understanding of the information. The term has come to be used for a specific area of graphic design related to displaying information ...
,
kinesiology
Kinesiology () is the scientific study of human body movement. Kinesiology addresses physiological, anatomical, biomechanical, pathological, neuropsychological principles and mechanisms of movement. Applications of kinesiology to human health ...
,
physiology
Physiology (; ) is the scientific study of functions and mechanisms in a living system. As a sub-discipline of biology, physiology focuses on how organisms, organ systems, individual organs, cells, and biomolecules carry out the chemical ...
,
cognitive psychology
Cognitive psychology is the scientific study of mental processes such as attention, language use, memory, perception, problem solving, creativity, and reasoning.
Cognitive psychology originated in the 1960s in a break from behaviorism, which ...
,
industrial and organizational psychology
Industrial and organizational psychology (I-O psychology), an applied discipline within psychology, is the science of human behavior in the workplace. Depending on the country or region of the world, I-O psychology is also known as occupational ...
, and
space psychology Space psychology refers to applying psychology to advise human spaceflight. This includes applying industrial and organizational psychology to team selection, individual and team mental preparation, team training, and ongoing psychological support, ...
.
Etymology
The term ''ergonomics'' (from the
Greek
Greek may refer to:
Greece
Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe:
*Greeks, an ethnic group.
*Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family.
**Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor ...
ἔργον, meaning "work", and νόμος, meaning "natural law") first entered the modern lexicon when Polish scientist
Wojciech Jastrzębowski
Wojciech Jastrzębowski (19 April 1799 – 30 December 1882) was a Polish scientist, naturalist and inventor, professor of botany, physics, zoology and horticulture at Instytut Rolniczo-Leśny in Marymont in Warsaw, and insurgent of the November ...
used the word in his 1857 article (The Outline of Ergonomics; i.e. Science of Work, Based on the Truths Taken from the Natural Science). The French scholar
Jean-Gustave Courcelle-Seneuil, apparently without knowledge of Jastrzębowski's article, used the word with a slightly different meaning in 1858. The introduction of the term to the English lexicon is widely attributed to British psychologist
Hywel Murrell
Hywel Murrell (1908 – 21 January 1984) was a British psychologist who introduced the term "ergonomics" to the English dictionary, created the first ergonomics department in British industry, and wrote the first British textbook on ergonomics. H ...
, at the 1949 meeting at the UK's
Admiralty
Admiralty most often refers to:
*Admiralty, Hong Kong
*Admiralty (United Kingdom), military department in command of the Royal Navy from 1707 to 1964
*The rank of admiral
*Admiralty law
Admiralty can also refer to:
Buildings
* Admiralty, Traf ...
, which led to the foundation of
The Ergonomics Society. He used it to encompass the studies in which he had been engaged during and after World War II.
The expression ''human factors'' is a predominantly North American
term which has been adopted to emphasize the application of the same methods to non-work-related situations. A "human factor" is a physical or
cognitive
Cognition refers to "the mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses". It encompasses all aspects of intellectual functions and processes such as: perception, attention, thought, ...
property of an individual or social
behavior
Behavior (American English) or behaviour (British English) is the range of actions and mannerisms made by individuals, organisms, systems or artificial entities in some environment. These systems can include other systems or organisms as wel ...
specific to humans that may influence the functioning of technological systems. The terms "human factors" and "ergonomics" are essentially synonymous.
Domains of specialization
Ergonomics comprise three main fields of research: physical, cognitive, and organizational ergonomics.
There are many specializations within these broad categories. Specializations in the field of physical ergonomics may include visual ergonomics. Specializations within the field of cognitive ergonomics may include usability,
human–computer interaction
Human–computer interaction (HCI) is research in the design and the use of computer technology, which focuses on the interfaces between people (users) and computers. HCI researchers observe the ways humans interact with computers and design tec ...
, and user experience engineering.
Some specializations may cut across these domains: ''Environmental ergonomics'' is concerned with human interaction with the environment as characterized by climate, temperature, pressure, vibration, light. The emerging field of
human factors in highway safety uses human factor principles to understand the actions and capabilities of road users – car and truck drivers, pedestrians, cyclists, etc. – and use this knowledge to design roads and streets to reduce
traffic collisions. Driver error is listed as a contributing factor in 44% of fatal collisions in the United States, so a topic of particular interest is how road users gather and process information about the road and its environment, and how to assist them to make the appropriate decision.
New terms are being generated all the time. For instance, "user trial engineer" may refer to a human factors engineering professional who specializes in user trials. Although the names change, human factors professionals apply an understanding of human factors to the design of equipment, systems and working methods to improve comfort, health, safety, and productivity.
According to the
International Ergonomics Association
The International Ergonomics Association (IEA) is a federation of fifty-two individual ergonomics organizations from around the world. IEA was formed in 1959.
The mission of the IEA is to elaborate and advance ergonomics science and practice, and ...
, within the discipline of ergonomics there exist domains of specialization.
Physical ergonomics
Physical ergonomics
Human factors and ergonomics (commonly referred to as human factors) is the application of psychological and physiological principles to the engineering and design of products, processes, and systems. Four primary goals of human factors learnin ...
is concerned with human anatomy, and some of the anthropometric, physiological and bio mechanical characteristics as they relate to physical activity.
Physical ergonomic principles have been widely used in the
design
A design is a plan or specification for the construction of an object or system or for the implementation of an activity or process or the result of that plan or specification in the form of a prototype, product, or process. The verb ''to design'' ...
of both consumer and industrial products for optimizing performance and to preventing / treating work-related disorders by reducing the mechanisms behind mechanically induced acute and chronic musculoskeletal injuries / disorders. Risk factors such as localized mechanical pressures, force and posture in a sedentary office environment lead to injuries attributed to an occupational environment. Physical ergonomics is important to those diagnosed with physiological ailments or disorders such as
arthritis
Arthritis is a term often used to mean any disorder that affects joints. Symptoms generally include joint pain and stiffness. Other symptoms may include redness, warmth, swelling, and decreased range of motion of the affected joints. In som ...
(both chronic and temporary) or
carpal tunnel syndrome
Carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) is the collection of symptoms and signs associated with median neuropathy at the carpal tunnel. Most CTS is related to idiopathic compression of the median nerve as it travels through the wrist at the carpal tunn ...
. Pressure that is insignificant or imperceptible to those unaffected by these disorders may be very painful, or render a device unusable, for those who are. Many ergonomically designed products are also used or recommended to treat or prevent such disorders, and to treat pressure-related
chronic pain
Chronic pain is classified as pain that lasts longer than three to six months. In medicine, the distinction between Acute (medicine), acute and Chronic condition, chronic pain is sometimes determined by the amount of time since onset. Two commonly ...
.
One of the most prevalent types of work-related injuries is musculoskeletal disorder. Work-related musculoskeletal disorders (WRMDs) result in persistent pain, loss of functional capacity and work disability, but their initial diagnosis is difficult because they are mainly based on complaints of pain and other symptoms. Every year, 1.8 million U.S. workers experience WRMDs and nearly 600,000 of the injuries are serious enough to cause workers to miss work. Certain jobs or work conditions cause a higher rate of worker complaints of undue strain, localized fatigue, discomfort, or pain that does not go away after overnight rest. These types of jobs are often those involving activities such as repetitive and forceful exertions; frequent, heavy, or overhead lifts; awkward work positions; or use of vibrating equipment.
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has found substantial evidence that ergonomics programs can cut workers' compensation costs, increase productivity and decrease employee turnover. Mitigation solutions can include both short term and long-term solutions. Short and long-term solutions involve awareness training, positioning of the body, furniture and equipment and ergonomic exercises. Sit-stand stations and computer accessories that provide soft surfaces for resting the palm as well as split keyboards are recommended. Additionally, resources within the HR department can be allocated to provide assessments to employees to ensure the above criteria are met. Therefore, it is important to gather data to identify jobs or work conditions that are most problematic, using sources such as injury and illness logs, medical records, and job analyses.
[
]
Innovative workstations that are being tested include sit-stand desks, height adjustable desk, treadmill desks, pedal devices and cycle ergometers. In multiple studies these new workstations resulted in decreased waist circumference and improved psychological well-being. However a significant number of additional studies have seen no marked improvement in health outcomes.
With the emergence of collaborative robot
A cobot, or collaborative robot, is a robot intended for direct Human–robot interaction, human-robot interaction within a shared space, or where humans and robots are in close proximity. Cobot applications contrast with traditional industrial rob ...
s and smart system Smart systems incorporate functions of sensing, actuation, and control in order to describe and analyze a situation, and make decisions based on the available data in a predictive or adaptive manner, thereby performing smart actions. In most cases ...
s in manufacturing environments, the artificial agents can be used to improve physical ergonomics of human co-workers. For example, during human–robot collaboration the robot can use biomechanical models of the human co-worker in order to adjust the working configuration and account for various ergonomic metrics, such as human posture, joint torques, arm manipulability and muscle fatigue
Muscle fatigue is the decline in ability of muscles to generate force. It can be a result of vigorous exercise but abnormal fatigue may be caused by barriers to or interference with the different stages of muscle contraction. There are two main ca ...
. The ergonomic suitability of the shared workspace with respect to these metrics can also be displayed to the human with workspace maps through visual interfaces.
Cognitive ergonomics
Cognitive ergonomics is concerned with mental processes, such as perception, emotion, memory, reasoning, and motor response, as they affect interactions among humans and other elements of a system. (Relevant topics include mental workload, decision-making, skilled performance, human reliability, work stress and training as these may relate to human–system and human–computer interaction
Human–computer interaction (HCI) is research in the design and the use of computer technology, which focuses on the interfaces between people (users) and computers. HCI researchers observe the ways humans interact with computers and design tec ...
design.) Epidemiological studies show a correlation between the time one spends sedentary and their cognitive function such as lowered mood and depression.
Organizational ergonomics and safety culture
Organizational ergonomics is concerned with the optimization of socio-technical systems, including their organizational structures, policies, and processes. Relevant topics include human communication successes or failures in adaptation to other system elements, crew resource management, work design, work systems
Work system has been used loosely in many areas. This article concerns its use in understanding IT-reliant systems in organizations. A notable use of the term occurred in 1977 in the first volume of MIS Quarterly in two articles by Bostrom and Hein ...
, design of working times, teamwork, participatory ergonomics Industrial ergonomics programs seek to identify and correct factors that negatively impact the physical health of their workers. Participatory ergonomics programs seek to maximize the involvement of the workers in this process based on the simple fa ...
, community ergonomics, cooperative work, new work programs, virtual organizations, remote work
Remote work, also called work from home (WFH), work from anywhere, telework, remote job, mobile work, and distance work is an employment arrangement in which employees do not commute to a central place of work, such as an office building, ware ...
, and quality management. Safety culture within an organization of engineers and technicians has been linked to engineering safety with cultural dimensions including power distance
Power distance is a dimension theorized and proven by Geert Hofstede, who outlined multiple cultural dimensions throughout his work. This term refers to inequality and unequal distributions of power between parties; whether it is within the work ...
and ambiguity tolerance. Low power distance has been shown to be more conducive to a safety culture. Organizations with cultures of concealment or lack of empathy have been shown to have poor safety culture.
History
Ancient societies
Some have stated that human ergonomics began with ''Australopithecus prometheus'' (also known as “little foot”), a primate who created handheld tools out of different types of stone, clearly distinguishing between tools based on their ability to perform designated tasks. The foundations of the science of ergonomics appear to have been laid within the context of the culture of Ancient Greece
Ancient Greece ( el, Ἑλλάς, Hellás) was a northeastern Mediterranean civilization, existing from the Greek Dark Ages of the 12th–9th centuries BC to the end of classical antiquity ( AD 600), that comprised a loose collection of cult ...
. A good deal of evidence indicates that Greek civilization in the 5th century BC used ergonomic principles in the design of their tools, jobs, and workplaces. One outstanding example of this can be found in the description Hippocrates
Hippocrates of Kos (; grc-gre, Ἱπποκράτης ὁ Κῷος, Hippokrátēs ho Kôios; ), also known as Hippocrates II, was a Greek physician of the classical period who is considered one of the most outstanding figures in the history of ...
gave of how a surgeon's workplace should be designed and how the tools he uses should be arranged. The archaeological record
The archaeological record is the body of physical (not written) evidence about the past. It is one of the core concepts in archaeology, the academic discipline concerned with documenting and interpreting the archaeological record. Archaeological th ...
also shows that the early Egyptian dynasties made tools and household equipment that illustrated ergonomic principles.
Industrial societies
Bernardino Ramazzini was one of the first people to systematically study the illness that resulted from work earning himself the nickname “father of occupational medicine”. In the late 1600s and early 1700s Ramazzini visited many worksites where he documented the movements of laborers and spoke to them about their ailments. He then published “De Morbis Artificum Diatriba” (Latin for Diseases of Workers) which detailed occupations, common illnesses, remedies. In the 19th century, Frederick Winslow Taylor
Frederick Winslow Taylor (March 20, 1856 – March 21, 1915) was an American mechanical engineer. He was widely known for his methods to improve industrial efficiency. He was one of the first management consultants. In 1909, Taylor summed up hi ...
pioneered the "scientific management
Scientific management is a theory of management that analyzes and synthesizes workflows. Its main objective is improving economic efficiency, especially labor productivity. It was one of the earliest attempts to apply science to the engineer ...
" method, which proposed a way to find the optimum method of carrying out a given task. Taylor found that he could, for example, triple the amount of coal that workers were shoveling by incrementally reducing the size and weight of coal shovels until the fastest shoveling rate was reached.[Nikolayevich Myasishchev estia.com/library/1358216/the-history-of-human-factors-and-ergonomics](_blank)
The History of Human Factors and Ergonomics, David Meister Frank
Frank or Franks may refer to:
People
* Frank (given name)
* Frank (surname)
* Franks (surname)
* Franks, a medieval Germanic people
* Frank, a term in the Muslim world for all western Europeans, particularly during the Crusades - see Farang
Curr ...
and Lillian Gilbreth expanded Taylor's methods in the early 1900s to develop the "time and motion study
A time and motion study (or time-motion study) is a business efficiency technique combining the Time Study work of Frederick Winslow Taylor with the Motion Study work of Frank and Lillian Gilbreth (the same couple as is best known through the biog ...
". They aimed to improve efficiency by eliminating unnecessary steps and actions. By applying this approach, the Gilbreths reduced the number of motions in bricklaying
Brickwork is masonry produced by a bricklayer, using bricks and mortar. Typically, rows of bricks called '' courses'' are laid on top of one another to build up a structure such as a brick wall.
Bricks may be differentiated from blocks by si ...
from 18 to 4.5, allowing bricklayers to increase their productivity from 120 to 350 bricks per hour.
However, this approach was rejected by Russian researchers who focused on the well-being of the worker. At the First Conference on Scientific Organization of Labour The First Conference on Scientific Organization of Labour was held in Russia in January 1921 to bring together experts in different fields around the study of the problems of human work.
Lenin had proposed a competition to produce a manual for the ...
(1921) Vladimir Bekhterev
Vladimir Mikhailovich Bekhterev ( rus, Влади́мир Миха́йлович Бе́хтерев, p=ˈbʲextʲɪrʲɪf; January 20, 1857 – December 24, 1927) was a Russian neurologist and the father of objective psychology. He is best know ...
and Vladimir Nikolayevich Myasishchev criticised Taylorism. Bekhterev argued that "The ultimate ideal of the labour problem is not in it aylorism but is in such organisation of the labour process that would yield a maximum of efficiency coupled with a minimum of health hazards, absence of fatigue and a guarantee of the sound health and all round personal development of the working people." Myasishchev rejected Frederick Taylor's proposal to turn man into a machine. Dull monotonous work was a temporary necessity until a corresponding machine can be developed. He also went on to suggest a new discipline of "ergology" to study work as an integral part of the re-organisation of work. The concept was taken up by Myasishchev's mentor, Bekhterev, in his final report on the conference, merely changing the name to "ergonology"[
]
Aviation
Prior to World War I
World War I (28 July 1914 11 November 1918), often abbreviated as WWI, was List of wars and anthropogenic disasters by death toll, one of the deadliest global conflicts in history. Belligerents included much of Europe, the Russian Empire, ...
, the focus of aviation psychology was on the aviator himself, but the war shifted the focus onto the aircraft, in particular, the design of controls and displays, and the effects of altitude and environmental factors on the pilot. The war saw the emergence of aeromedical research and the need for testing and measurement methods. Studies on driver behavior started gaining momentum during this period, as Henry Ford
Henry Ford (July 30, 1863 – April 7, 1947) was an American industrialist, business magnate, founder of the Ford Motor Company, and chief developer of the assembly line technique of mass production. By creating the first automobile that mi ...
started providing millions of Americans with automobiles. Another major development during this period was the performance of aeromedical research. By the end of World War I, two aeronautical labs were established, one at Brooks Air Force Base
Brooks Air Force Base was a United States Air Force facility located in San Antonio, Texas, southeast of Downtown San Antonio.
In 2002, Brooks Air Force Base was renamed Brooks City-Base when the property was conveyed to the Brooks Developmen ...
, Texas and the other at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base
Wright-Patterson Air Force Base (WPAFB) is a United States Air Force base and census-designated place just east of Dayton, Ohio, in Greene County, Ohio, Greene and Montgomery County, Ohio, Montgomery counties. It includes both Wright and Patte ...
outside of Dayton, Ohio
Dayton () is the sixth-largest city in the U.S. state of Ohio and the county seat of Montgomery County. A small part of the city extends into Greene County. The 2020 U.S. census estimate put the city population at 137,644, while Greater Day ...
. Many tests were conducted to determine which characteristic differentiated the successful pilots from the unsuccessful ones. During the early 1930s, Edwin Link
Edwin Albert Link (July 26, 1904 – September 7, 1981) was an American inventor, entrepreneur and pioneer in aviation, underwater archaeology, and submersibles. He invented the flight simulator, which was called the "Blue Box" or "Link Trai ...
developed the first flight simulator. The trend continued and more sophisticated simulators and test equipment were developed. Another significant development was in the civilian sector, where the effects of illumination on worker productivity were examined. This led to the identification of the Hawthorne Effect
The Hawthorne effect is a type of reactivity in which individuals modify an aspect of their behavior in response to their awareness of being observed. The effect was discovered in the context of research conducted at the Hawthorne Western Electri ...
, which suggested that motivational factors could significantly influence human performance.
World War II
World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...
marked the development of new and complex machines and weaponry, and these made new demands on operators' cognition
Cognition refers to "the mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses". It encompasses all aspects of intellectual functions and processes such as: perception, attention, thought, ...
. It was no longer possible to adopt the Tayloristic principle of matching individuals to preexisting jobs. Now the design of equipment had to take into account human limitations and take advantage of human capabilities. The decision-making, attention, situational awareness and hand-eye coordination of the machine's operator became key in the success or failure of a task. There was substantial research conducted to determine the human capabilities and limitations that had to be accomplished. A lot of this research took off where the aeromedical research between the wars had left off. An example of this is the study done by Fitts and Jones (1947), who studied the most effective configuration of control knobs to be used in aircraft cockpits.
Much of this research transcended into other equipment with the aim of making the controls and displays easier for the operators to use. The entry of the terms "human factors" and "ergonomics" into the modern lexicon date from this period. It was observed that fully functional aircraft flown by the best-trained pilots, still crashed. In 1943 Alphonse Chapanis Alphonse Chapanis (March 17, 1917 – October 4, 2002) was an American pioneer in the field of industrial design, and is widely considered one of the fathers of ergonomics or human factors – the science of ensuring that design takes account of h ...
, a lieutenant in the U.S. Army, showed that this so-called "pilot error
Pilot error generally refers to an Aviation accidents and incidents, accident in which an action or decision made by the Aircraft pilot#Airline, pilot was the cause or a contributing factor that led to the accident, but also includes the pi ...
" could be greatly reduced when more logical and differentiable controls replaced confusing designs in airplane cockpits. After the war, the Army Air Force published 19 volumes summarizing what had been established from research during the war.
In the decades since World War II, human factors has continued to flourish and diversify. Work by Elias Porter
Elias Hull Porter (1914 – December 13, 1987) was an American psychologist. While at the University of Chicago Porter was a peer of other notable American psychologists, including Carl Rogers, Thomas Gordon, Abraham Maslow and Will Schutz. His ...
and others within the RAND Corporation
The RAND Corporation (from the phrase "research and development") is an American nonprofit global policy think tank created in 1948 by Douglas Aircraft Company to offer research and analysis to the United States Armed Forces. It is financed ...
after WWII extended the conception of human factors. "As the thinking progressed, a new concept developed—that it was possible to view an organization such as an air-defense, man-machine system as a single organism and that it was possible to study the behavior of such an organism. It was the climate for a breakthrough." In the initial 20 years after the World War II, most activities were done by the "founding fathers": Alphonse Chapanis Alphonse Chapanis (March 17, 1917 – October 4, 2002) was an American pioneer in the field of industrial design, and is widely considered one of the fathers of ergonomics or human factors – the science of ensuring that design takes account of h ...
, Paul Fitts
Paul Morris Fitts Jr. (May 6, 1912 – May 2, 1965) was a psychologist at the Ohio State University (later at the University of Michigan). He developed a model of human movement, Fitts's law, based on rapid, aimed movement, which went on to beco ...
, and Small.
Cold War
The beginning of the Cold War
The Cold War is a term commonly used to refer to a period of geopolitical tension between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies, the Western Bloc and the Eastern Bloc. The term '' cold war'' is used because the ...
led to a major expansion of Defense supported research laboratories. Also, many labs established during WWII started expanding. Most of the research following the war was military-sponsored. Large sums of money were granted to universities to conduct research. The scope of the research also broadened from small equipments to entire workstations and systems. Concurrently, a lot of opportunities started opening up in the civilian industry. The focus shifted from research to participation through advice to engineers in the design of equipment. After 1965, the period saw a maturation of the discipline. The field has expanded with the development of the computer and computer applications.
The Space Age
The Space Age is a period encompassing the activities related to the Space Race, space exploration, space technology, and the cultural developments influenced by these events, beginning with the Sputnik_1#Launch_and_mission, launch of Sputnik 1 ...
created new human factors issues such as weightlessness and extreme g-forces
The gravitational force equivalent, or, more commonly, g-force, is a measurement of the type of force per unit mass – typically acceleration – that causes a perception of weight, with a g-force of 1 g (not gram in mass measure ...
. Tolerance of the harsh environment of space and its effects on the mind and body were widely studied.
Information age
The dawn of the Information Age
The Information Age (also known as the Computer Age, Digital Age, Silicon Age, or New Media Age) is a historical period that began in the mid-20th century. It is characterized by a rapid shift from traditional industries, as established during ...
has resulted in the related field of human–computer interaction
Human–computer interaction (HCI) is research in the design and the use of computer technology, which focuses on the interfaces between people (users) and computers. HCI researchers observe the ways humans interact with computers and design tec ...
(HCI). Likewise, the growing demand for and competition among consumer goods
A final good or consumer good is a final product ready for sale that is used by the consumer to satisfy current wants or needs, unlike a intermediate good, which is used to produce other goods. A microwave oven or a bicycle is a final good, but ...
and electronics
The field of electronics is a branch of physics and electrical engineering that deals with the emission, behaviour and effects of electrons using electronic devices. Electronics uses active devices to control electron flow by amplification ...
has resulted in more companies and industries including human factors in their product design. Using advanced technologies in human kinetics
Humans (''Homo sapiens'') are the most abundant and widespread species of primate, characterized by bipedalism and exceptional cognitive skills due to a large and complex brain. This has enabled the development of advanced tools, culture, an ...
, body-mapping, movement patterns and heat zones, companies are able to manufacture purpose-specific garments, including full body suits, jerseys, shorts, shoes, and even underwear
Undergarments, underclothing, or underwear are items of clothing worn beneath outer clothes, usually in direct contact with the skin, although they may comprise more than a single layer. They serve to keep outer garments from being soiled o ...
.
Organizations
Formed in 1946 in the UK, the oldest professional body for human factors specialists and ergonomists is The Chartered Institute of Ergonomics and Human Factors
The Chartered Institute of Ergonomics and Human Factors (CIEHF – formerly The Ergonomics Society) is a United Kingdom-based professional society for ergonomists, human factors specialists, and those involved in user-centred design.
History
The ...
, formally known as the ''Institute of Ergonomics and Human Factors'' and before that, ''The Ergonomics Society''.
The Human Factors and Ergonomics Society
The Human Factors and Ergonomics Society (HFES) is an interdisciplinary nonprofit professional organization, headquartered in Washington, D.C., United States, covering the fields of human factors and ergonomics. Founded in 1957, HFES claims 4500 m ...
(HFES) was founded in 1957. The Society's mission is to promote the discovery and exchange of knowledge concerning the characteristics of human beings that are applicable to the design of systems and devices of all kinds.
Th
Association of Canadian Ergonomists - l'Association canadienne d'ergonomie
(ACE) was founded in 1968. It was originally named the Human Factors Association of Canada (HFAC), with ACE (in French) added in 1984, and the consistent, bilingual title adopted in 1999. According to it 2017 mission statement, ACE unites and advances the knowledge and skills of ergonomics and human factors practitioners to optimise human and organisational well-being.
The International Ergonomics Association
The International Ergonomics Association (IEA) is a federation of fifty-two individual ergonomics organizations from around the world. IEA was formed in 1959.
The mission of the IEA is to elaborate and advance ergonomics science and practice, and ...
(IEA) is a federation of ergonomics and human factors societies from around the world. The mission of the IEA is to elaborate and advance ergonomics science and practice, and to improve the quality of life by expanding its scope of application and contribution to society. As of September 2008, the International Ergonomics Association has 46 federated societies and 2 affiliated societies.
The Human Factors Transforming Healthcare (HFTH) is an international network of HF practitioners who are embedded within hospitals and health systems. The goal of the network is to provide resources for human factors practitioners and healthcare organizations looking to successfully apply HF principles to improve patient care and provider performance. The network also serves as collaborative platform for human factors practitioners, students, faculty, industry partners, and those curious about human factors in healthcare.
Related organizations
The Institute of Occupational Medicine The Institute of Occupational Medicine (IOM) was founded in 1969 by the National Coal Board (NCB) as an independent charity in the UK and retains this charitable purpose and status today. The "Institute" has a subsidiary, IOM Consulting Limited, whi ...
(IOM) was founded by the coal industry in 1969. From the outset the IOM employed an ergonomics staff to apply ergonomics principles to the design of mining machinery and environments. To this day, the IOM continues ergonomics activities, especially in the fields of musculoskeletal disorders
Musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) are injuries or pain in the human musculoskeletal system, including the joints, ligaments, muscles, nerves, tendons, and structures that support limbs, neck and back. MSDs can arise from a sudden exertion (e.g., li ...
; heat stress and the ergonomics of personal protective equipment
Personal protective equipment (PPE) is protective clothing, helmets, goggles, or other garments or equipment designed to protect the wearer's body from injury or infection. The hazards addressed by protective equipment include physical, elec ...
(PPE). Like many in occupational ergonomics, the demands and requirements of an ageing UK workforce are a growing concern and interest to IOM ergonomists.
The International Society of Automotive Engineers
SAE International, formerly named the Society of Automotive Engineers, is a United States-based, globally active professional association and standards developing organization for engineering professionals in various industries. SAE Internatio ...
(SAE) is a professional organization for mobility engineering professionals in the aerospace, automotive, and commercial vehicle industries. The Society is a standards development organization for the engineering of powered vehicles of all kinds, including cars, trucks, boats, aircraft, and others. The Society of Automotive Engineers has established a number of standards used in the automotive industry and elsewhere. It encourages the design of vehicles in accordance with established human factors principles. It is one of the most influential organizations with respect to ergonomics work in automotive design
Automotive design is the process of developing the appearance (and to some extent the ergonomics) of motor vehicles - including automobiles, motorcycles, trucks, buses, coaches, and vans.
The functional design and development of a modern moto ...
. This society regularly holds conferences which address topics spanning all aspects of human factors and ergonomics.
Practitioners
Human factors practitioners come from a variety of backgrounds, though predominantly they are psychologists (from the various subfields of industrial and organizational psychology
Industrial and organizational psychology (I-O psychology), an applied discipline within psychology, is the science of human behavior in the workplace. Depending on the country or region of the world, I-O psychology is also known as occupational ...
, engineering psychology
Engineering psychology, also known as Human Factors Engineering, is the science of human behavior and capability, applied to the design and operation of systems and technology.
As an applied field of psychology and an interdisciplinary part of ergo ...
, cognitive psychology
Cognitive psychology is the scientific study of mental processes such as attention, language use, memory, perception, problem solving, creativity, and reasoning.
Cognitive psychology originated in the 1960s in a break from behaviorism, which ...
, perceptual psychology Perceptual psychology is a subfield of cognitive psychology that concerns the conscious and unconscious innate aspects of the human cognitive system: perception.
A pioneer of the field was James J. Gibson. One major study was that of affordances, i ...
, applied psychology, and experimental psychology
Experimental psychology refers to work done by those who apply experimental methods to psychological study and the underlying processes. Experimental psychologists employ human participants and animal subjects to study a great many topics, in ...
) and physiologists. Designers (industrial, interaction, and graphic), anthropologists, technical communication scholars and computer scientists also contribute. Typically, an ergonomist will have an undergraduate degree
An undergraduate degree (also called first degree or simply degree) is a colloquial term for an academic degree earned by a person who has completed undergraduate courses. In the United States, it is usually offered at an institution of higher e ...
in psychology, engineering, design or health sciences
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to health sciences:
Health sciences are those sciences which focus on health, or health care, as core parts of their subject matter. Health sciences relate to multiple acad ...
, and usually a master's degree or doctoral degree
A doctorate (from Latin ''docere'', "to teach"), doctor's degree (from Latin ''doctor'', "teacher"), or doctoral degree is an academic degree awarded by universities and some other educational institutions, derived from the ancient formalism ''li ...
in a related discipline. Though some practitioners enter the field of human factors from other disciplines, both M.S. and PhD degrees in Human Factors Engineering are available from several universities worldwide.
Sedentary workplace
Contemporary offices did not exist until the 1830s, with Wojciech Jastrzębowsk's seminal book on MSDergonomics following in 1857 and the first published study of posture appearing in 1955.
As the American workforce began to shift towards sedentary employment, the prevalence of MSD/cognitive issues/ etc..began to rise. In 1900, 41% of the US workforce was employed in agriculture but by 2000 that had dropped to 1.9% This coincides with an increase in growth in desk-based employment (25% of all employment in 2000) and the surveillance of non-fatal workplace injuries by OSHA and Bureau of Labor Statistics in 1971. 0–1.5 and occurs in a sitting or reclining position. Adults older than 50 years report spending more time sedentary and for adults older than 65 years this is often 80% of their awake time. Multiple studies show a dose-response relationship between sedentary time and all-cause mortality with an increase of 3% mortality per additional sedentary hour each day. High quantities of sedentary time without breaks is correlated to higher risk of chronic disease, obesity, cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes and cancer.
Currently, there is a large proportion of the overall workforce who is employed in low physical activity occupations. Sedentary behavior, such as spending long periods of time in seated positions poses a serious threat for injuries and additional health risks.[Canadian Centre for Occupational Health. (2019, March 15). (none). Retrieved February, 2019, from https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/ergonomics/sitting/sitting_overview.html] Unfortunately, even though some workplaces make an effort to provide a well designed environment for sedentary employees, any employee who is performing large amounts of sitting will likely experience discomfort.
There are existing conditions that would predispose both individuals and populations to an increase in prevalence of living sedentary lifestyles, including: socioeconomic determinants, education levels, occupation, living environment, age (as mentioned above) and more. A study published by the Iranian Journal of Public Health examined socioeconomic factors and sedentary lifestyle effects for individuals in a working community. The study concluded that individuals who reported living in low income environments were more inclined to living sedentary behavior compared to those who reported being of high socioeconomic status. Individuals who achieve less education are also considered to be a high risk group to partake in sedentary lifestyles, however, each community is different and has different resources available that may vary this risk. Oftentimes, larger worksites are associated with increased occupational sitting. Those who work in environments that are classified as business and office jobs are typically more exposed to sitting and sedentary behavior while in the workplace. Additionally, occupations that are full-time, have schedule flexibility, are also included in that demographic, and are more likely to sit often throughout their workday.
Policy implementation
Obstacles surrounding better ergonomic features to sedentary employees include cost, time, effort and for both companies and employees. The evidence above helps establish the importance of ergonomics in a sedentary workplace, yet missing information from this problem is enforcement and policy implementation. As a modernized workplace becomes more and more technology based more jobs are becoming primarily seated, therefore leading to a need to prevent chronic injuries and pain. This is becoming easier with the amount of research around ergonomic tools saving money companies by limiting the number of days missed from work and workers comp cases. The way to ensure that corporations prioritize these health outcomes for their employees is through policy and implementation.
Nationwide there are no policies that are currently in place, however a handful of big companies and states have taken on cultural policies to insure the safety of all workers. For example, the state of Nevada risk management department has established a set of ground rules for both agencies responsibilities and employees responsibilities. The agency responsibilities include evaluating workstations, using risk management resources when necessary and keeping OSHA records. To see specific workstation ergonomic policies and responsibilities click here.
Methods
Until recently, methods used to evaluate human factors and ergonomics ranged from simple questionnaires to more complex and expensive usability
Usability can be described as the capacity of a system to provide a condition for its users to perform the tasks safely, effectively, and efficiently while enjoying the experience. In software engineering, usability is the degree to which a soft ...
labs. Some of the more common human factors methods are listed below:
*Ethnographic analysis: Using methods derived from ethnography
Ethnography (from Greek ''ethnos'' "folk, people, nation" and ''grapho'' "I write") is a branch of anthropology and the systematic study of individual cultures. Ethnography explores cultural phenomena from the point of view of the subject o ...
, this process focuses on observing the uses of technology in a practical environment. It is a qualitative and observational method that focuses on "real-world" experience and pressures, and the usage of technology or environments in the workplace. The process is best used early in the design process.
*Focus Groups
A focus group is a group interview involving a small number of demographically similar people or participants who have other common traits/experiences. Their reactions to specific researcher/evaluator-posed questions are studied. Focus groups are ...
are another form of qualitative research in which one individual will facilitate discussion and elicit opinions about the technology or process under investigation. This can be on a one-to-one interview basis, or in a group session. Can be used to gain a large quantity of deep qualitative data, though due to the small sample size, can be subject to a higher degree of individual bias.[Wickens, C.D.; Lee J.D.; Liu Y.; Gorden Becker S.E. (1997). An Introduction to Human Factors Engineering, 2nd Edition. Prentice Hall. .] Can be used at any point in the design process, as it is largely dependent on the exact questions to be pursued, and the structure of the group. Can be extremely costly.
*Iterative design
Iterative design is a design methodology based on a cyclic process of prototyping, testing, analyzing, and refining a product or process. Based on the results of testing the most recent iteration of a design, changes and refinements are made. Th ...
: Also known as prototyping, the iterative design process seeks to involve users at several stages of design, to correct problems as they emerge. As prototypes emerge from the design process, these are subjected to other forms of analysis as outlined in this article, and the results are then taken and incorporated into the new design. Trends among users are analyzed, and products redesigned. This can become a costly process, and needs to be done as soon as possible in the design process before designs become too concrete.
*Meta-analysis
A meta-analysis is a statistical analysis that combines the results of multiple scientific studies. Meta-analyses can be performed when there are multiple scientific studies addressing the same question, with each individual study reporting me ...
: A supplementary technique used to examine a wide body of already existing data or literature to derive trends or form hypotheses to aid design decisions. As part of a literature survey, a meta-analysis can be performed to discern a collective trend from individual variables.
*Subjects-in-tandem: Two subjects are asked to work concurrently on a series of tasks while vocalizing their analytical observations. The technique is also known as "Co-Discovery" as participants tend to feed off of each other's comments to generate a richer set of observations than is often possible with the participants separately. This is observed by the researcher, and can be used to discover usability difficulties. This process is usually recorded.
*Surveys and questionnaires: A commonly used technique outside of human factors as well, surveys and questionnaires have an advantage in that they can be administered to a large group of people for relatively low cost, enabling the researcher to gain a large amount of data. The validity of the data obtained is, however, always in question, as the questions must be written and interpreted correctly, and are, by definition, subjective. Those who actually respond are in effect self-selecting as well, widening the gap between the sample and the population further.
*Task analysis
Task analysis is the analysis of how a task is accomplished, including a detailed description of both manual and mental activities, task and element durations, task frequency, task allocation, task complexity, environmental conditions, necessary cl ...
: A process with roots in activity theory
Activity theory (AT; russian: link=no, Теория деятельности) is an umbrella term for a line of eclectic social-sciences theories and research with its roots in the Soviet psychological activity theory pioneered by Sergei Rubinste ...
, task analysis is a way of systematically describing human interaction with a system or process to understand how to match the demands of the system or process to human capabilities. The complexity of this process is generally proportional to the complexity of the task being analyzed, and so can vary in cost and time involvement. It is a qualitative and observational process. Best used early in the design process.
*Human performance modeling Human performance modeling (HPM) is a method of quantifying human behavior, cognition, and processes. It is a tool used by human factors researchers and practitioners for both the analysis of human function and for the development of systems designe ...
: A method of quantifying human behavior, cognition, and processes; a tool used by human factors researchers and practitioners for both the analysis of human function and for the development of systems designed for optimal user experience and interaction.
*Think aloud protocol
A think-aloud (or thinking aloud) protocol is a method used to gather data in usability testing in product design and development, in psychology and a range of social sciences (e.g., reading, writing, translation research, decision making, and proc ...
: Also known as "concurrent verbal protocol", this is the process of asking a user to execute a series of tasks or use technology, while continuously verbalizing their thoughts so that a researcher can gain insights as to the users' analytical process. Can be useful for finding design flaws that do not affect task performance, but may have a negative cognitive effect on the user. Also useful for utilizing experts to better understand procedural knowledge of the task in question. Less expensive than focus groups, but tends to be more specific and subjective.
*User analysis In systems design, user analysis is the means by which scientists, engineers and technical writers determine the characteristics of users which will influence the development of software systems or other technological products. During the process, ...
: This process is based around designing for the attributes of the intended user or operator, establishing the characteristics that define them, creating a persona
A persona (plural personae or personas), depending on the context, is the public image of one's personality, the social role that one adopts, or simply a fictional Character (arts), character. The word derives from Latin, where it originally ref ...
for the user. Best done at the outset of the design process, a user analysis will attempt to predict the most common users, and the characteristics that they would be assumed to have in common. This can be problematic if the design concept does not match the actual user, or if the identified are too vague to make clear design decisions from. This process is, however, usually quite inexpensive, and commonly used.
*"Wizard of Oz": This is a comparatively uncommon technique but has seen some use in mobile devices. Based upon the Wizard of Oz experiment
In the field of human–computer interaction, a Wizard of Oz experiment is a research experiment in which subjects interact with a computer system that subjects believe to be autonomous, but which is actually being operated or partially operate ...
, this technique involves an operator who remotely controls the operation of a device to imitate the response of an actual computer program. It has the advantage of producing a highly changeable set of reactions, but can be quite costly and difficult to undertake.
*Methods analysis is the process of studying the tasks a worker completes using a step-by-step investigation. Each task in broken down into smaller steps until each motion the worker performs is described. Doing so enables you to see exactly where repetitive or straining tasks occur.
*Time studies determine the time required for a worker to complete each task. Time studies are often used to analyze cyclical jobs. They are considered "event based" studies because time measurements are triggered by the occurrence of predetermined events.
*Work sampling Work sampling is the statistical technique used for determining the proportion of time spent by workers in various defined categories of activity (e.g. setting up a machine, assembling two parts, idle…etc.). It is as important as all other statis ...
is a method in which the job is sampled at random intervals to determine the proportion of total time spent on a particular task.[ It provides insight into how often workers are performing tasks which might cause strain on their bodies.
* Predetermined time systems are methods for analyzing the time spent by workers on a particular task. One of the most widely used predetermined time system is called Methods-Time-Measurement. Other common work measurement systems include MODAPTS and MOST. Industry specific applications based on PTS are Seweasy, MODAPTS and GSD as seen in paper: .
*]Cognitive walkthrough The cognitive walkthrough method is a usability inspection method used to identify usability issues in interactive systems, focusing on how easy it is for new users to accomplish tasks with the system. A cognitive walkthrough is task-specific, wher ...
: This method is a usability inspection Usability inspection is the name for a set of methods where an evaluator inspects a user interface. This is in contrast to usability testing where the usability of the interface is evaluated by testing it on real users. Usability inspections can gen ...
method in which the evaluators can apply user perspective to task scenarios to identify design problems. As applied to macroergonomics, evaluators are able to analyze the usability of work system designs to identify how well a work system is organized and how well the workflow is integrated.[Brookhuis, K., Hedge, A., Hendrick, H., Salas, E., and Stanton, N. (2005). Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics Models. Florida: CRC Press.]
* Kansei method: This is a method that transforms consumer's responses to new products into design specifications. As applied to macroergonomics, this method can translate employee's responses to changes to a work system into design specifications.[
*High Integration of Technology, Organization, and People: This is a manual procedure done step-by-step to apply technological change to the workplace. It allows managers to be more aware of the human and organizational aspects of their technology plans, allowing them to efficiently integrate technology in these contexts.][
*Top modeler: This model helps manufacturing companies identify the organizational changes needed when new technologies are being considered for their process.][
*Computer-integrated Manufacturing, Organization, and People System Design: This model allows for evaluating computer-integrated manufacturing, organization, and people system design based on knowledge of the system.][
*Anthropotechnology: This method considers analysis and design modification of systems for the efficient transfer of technology from one culture to another.][
*]Systems analysis
Systems analysis is "the process of studying a procedure or business to identify its goal and purposes and create systems and procedures that will efficiently achieve them". Another view sees system analysis as a problem-solving technique that b ...
tool: This is a method to conduct systematic trade-off evaluations of work-system intervention alternatives.[
*Macroergonomic analysis of structure: This method analyzes the structure of work systems according to their compatibility with unique sociotechnical aspects.][
*Macroergonomic analysis and design: This method assesses work-system processes by using a ten-step process.][
*Virtual manufacturing and response surface methodology: This method uses computerized tools and statistical analysis for workstation design.
]
Weaknesses
Problems related to measures of usability include the fact that measures of learning and retention of how to use an interface are rarely employed and some studies treat measures of how users interact with interfaces as synonymous with quality-in-use, despite an unclear relation.
Although field methods can be extremely useful because they are conducted in the users' natural environment, they have some major limitations to consider. The limitations include:
# Usually take more time and resources than other methods
# Very high effort in planning, recruiting, and executing compared with other methods
# Much longer study periods and therefore requires much goodwill among the participants
# Studies are longitudinal in nature, therefore, attrition can become a problem.
See also
References
Further reading
; Books
* Thomas J. Armstrong (2008), ''Chapter 10: Allowances, Localized Fatigue, Musculoskeletal Disorders, and Biomechanics'' (not yet published)
* Berlin C. & Adams C. & 2017. ''Production Ergonomics: Designing Work Systems to Support Optimal Human Performance''. London: Ubiquity Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5334/bbe
* Jan Dul and Bernard Weedmaster, ''Ergonomics for Beginners''. A classic introduction on ergonomics – Original title: ''Vademecum Ergonomie'' (Dutch)—published and updated since the 1960s.
* Valerie J Gawron (2000), ''Human Performance Measures Handbook'' Lawrence Erlbaum Associates – A useful summary of human performance measures.
*
* Liu, Y (2007). IOE 333. Course pack. Industrial and Operations Engineering 333 (Introduction to Ergonomics), University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI. Winter 2007
*
* Donald Norman, ''The Design of Everyday Things
''The Design of Everyday Things'' is a best-selling book by cognitive scientist and usability engineer Donald Norman about how design serves as the communication between object and user, and how to optimize that conduit of communication in order ...
''—An entertaining user-centered critique of nearly every gadget out there (at the time it was published)
* Peter Opsvik (2009), "Re-Thinking Sitting" Interesting insights on the history of the chair and how we sit from an ergonomic pioneer
*
* Computer Ergonomics & Work Related Upper Limb Disorder Prevention- Making The Business Case For Pro-active Ergonomics (Rooney et al., 2008)
* Stephen Pheasant, ''Bodyspace''—A classic exploration of ergonomics
*
*
* Alvin R. Tilley & Henry Dreyfuss Associates (1993, 2002), ''The Measure of Man & Woman: Human Factors in Design '' A human factors design manual.
* Kim Vicente, ''The Human Factor'' Full of examples and statistics illustrating the gap between existing technology and the human mind, with suggestions to narrow it
*
*
* Wickens and Hollands (2000). ''Engineering Psychology and Human Performance''. Discusses memory, attention, decision making, stress and human error, among other topics
* Wilson & Corlett, ''Evaluation of Human Work'' A practical ergonomics methodology. Warning: very technical and not a suitable 'intro' to ergonomics
* Zamprotta, Luigi, ''La qualité comme philosophie de la production.Interaction avec l'ergonomie et perspectives futures'', thèse de Maîtrise ès Sciences Appliquées – Informatique, Institut d'Etudes Supérieures L'Avenir, Brussels
Brussels (french: Bruxelles or ; nl, Brussel ), officially the Brussels-Capital Region (All text and all but one graphic show the English name as Brussels-Capital Region.) (french: link=no, Région de Bruxelles-Capitale; nl, link=no, Bruss ...
, année universitaire 1992–93, TI
Press, Independence, Missouri
Missouri is a U.S. state, state in the Midwestern United States, Midwestern region of the United States. Ranking List of U.S. states and territories by area, 21st in land area, it is bordered by eight states (tied for the most with Tennessee ...
(USA), 1994,
; Peer-reviewed Journals (numbers between brackets are the ISI impact factor
The impact factor (IF) or journal impact factor (JIF) of an academic journal is a scientometric index calculated by Clarivate that reflects the yearly mean number of citations of articles published in the last two years in a given journal, as i ...
, followed by the date)
* ''Behavior & Information Technology'' (0.915, 2008)
* ''Ergonomics'' (0.747, 2001–2003)
* '' Ergonomics in Design'' (-)
* ''Applied Ergonomics'' (1.713, 2015)
* ''Human Factors
Human factors and ergonomics (commonly referred to as human factors) is the application of psychological and physiological principles to the engineering and design of products, processes, and systems. Four primary goals of human factors learnin ...
'' (1.37, 2015)
* ''International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics'' (0.395, 2001–2003)
* ''Human Factors and Ergonomics in Manufacturing'' (0.311, 2001–2003)
* ''Travail Humain'' (0.260, 2001–2003)
* ''Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science
The ''Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science'' (TIES) journal is an interdisciplinary peer-reviewed academic journal covering research in human factors and ergonomics. Unlike other ergonomics journals that deal primarily with applications, TIE ...
'' (-)
* ''International Journal of Human Factors and Ergonomics'' (-)
* ''International Journal of Occupational Safety and Ergonomics'' (-)
External links
Directory of Design Support MethodsDirectory of Design Support Methods
Engineering Data Compendium of Human Perception and Performance
Index of Non-Government Standards on Human Engineering...
Index of Government Standards on Human Engineering...
NIOSH Topic Page on Ergonomics and Musculoskeletal Disorders
Office Ergonomics Information
from European Agency for Safety and Health at Work
The European Agency for Safety and Health at Work (EU-OSHA) is a decentralised agency of the European Union with the task of collecting, analysing and disseminating relevant information that can serve the needs of people involved in safety and h ...
Human Factors Standards & Handbooks
from the University of Maryland
The University of Maryland, College Park (University of Maryland, UMD, or simply Maryland) is a public land-grant research university in College Park, Maryland. Founded in 1856, UMD is the flagship institution of the University System of M ...
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Human Factors and Ergonomics Resources
Human Factors Engineering Collection, The University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives and Special Collections
{{DEFAULTSORT:Human factors
Industrial engineering
Occupational safety and health
Posture