Entheogenic drugs have been used by various groups for thousands of years. There are numerous
historical reports as well as modern, contemporary reports of indigenous groups using
entheogens,
chemical substances used in a
religious,
shamanic, or
spiritual context.
Common era
A Finnish study
assay
An assay is an investigative (analytic) procedure in laboratory medicine, mining, pharmacology, environmental biology and molecular biology for qualitatively assessing or quantitatively measuring the presence, amount, or functional activity of a ...
ed psilocybin concentrations in old
herbarium
A herbarium (plural: herbaria) is a collection of preserved plant specimens and associated data used for scientific study.
The specimens may be whole plants or plant parts; these will usually be in dried form mounted on a sheet of paper (called ...
specimens, and concluded that although psilocybin concentration decreased linearly over time, it was relatively stable. They were able to detect the chemical in specimens that were 115 years old.
New World
The Maya, Olmecs, and Aztecs have well-documented entheogenic complexes. North American cultures also have a tradition of entheogens. In South America, especially in Peru, the archaeological study of cultures like
Chavin, Cupisnique,
Nazca and Moche, have demonstrated the use of entheogens through archaeobotanical, iconographic and paraphernalia.
Olmec entheogens
The
Olmec (1200 BCE to 400 BCE) lived in Central America and are largely viewed by many as the mother culture of Aztecs and Maya. The Olmecs left no written works on their belief structures, so many interpretations on Olmec beliefs are largely based on interpretations of murals and artifacts. Archaeologists state three reasons for believing that the Olmecs used entheogens:
#Burials of
Bufo toads with priests
#The use of entheogens in later Olmec-inspired cultures
#Sculptures of shamans and other figures have strong
Therianthropic imagery.
Maya
The
Maya (250 BCE to 900 CE) flourished in Central America and were prevalent even until the arrival of the Spanish. The Maya religious tradition was complex and well-developed. Unlike the Olmec, the Maya possessed religious texts that have survived to this day. The Maya religion displayed characteristic Mesoamerican mythology, with a strong emphasis on an individual being a communicator between the physical world and the spiritual world. Mushroom stone effigies, dated to 1000 BCE, give evidence that mushrooms were at least revered in a religious way.
The late Maya archaeologist, Dr Stephan F. de Borhegyi, published the first of several articles in which he proposed the existence of a Mesoamerican mushroom cult in the Guatemalan highlands as early as 1000 B.C This cult, which was associated from its beginnings with ritual human decapitation, a trophy head cult, warfare and the Mesoamerican ballgame, appears to have had its origins along the Pacific coastal piedmont. Borhegyi developed this proposition after finding a significant number of small, mushroom-shaped sculptures in the collections of the Guatemala National Museum and in numerous private collections in and around Guatemala City. While the majority of these small stone sculptures were of indeterminate provenance, a sufficient number had been found during the course of archaeological investigations as to permit him to determine approximate dates and to catalog them stylistically (Borhegyi de, S.F., 1957b, "Mushroom Stones of Middle America," in Mushrooms, Russia and History by
Valentina P. Wasson and
R. Gordon Wasson
Robert Gordon Wasson (September 22, 1898 – December 23, 1986) was an American author, ethnomycologist, and Vice President for Public Relations at J.P. Morgan & Co.
In the course of work funded by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), Wasso ...
, eds. N.T.)
Archaeologist Stephan F. de Borhegyi wrote:
"My assignment for the so-called mushroom cult, earliest 1,000 B.C., is based on the excavations of Kidder and Shook at the Verbena cemetery at Kaminaljuyu. The mushroom stone found in this Pre-Classic grave, discovered in Mound E-III-3, has a circular groove on the cap. There are also a number of yet unpublished mushroom stone specimens in the Guatemalan Museum from Highland Guatemala where the pottery association would indicate that they are Pre-Classic. In each case the mushroom stone fragments has a circular groove on the top. Mushroom stones found during the Classic and Post-Classic periods do not have circular grooves. This was the basis on which I prepared the chart on mushroom stones which was then subsequently published by the Wassons. Based on Carbon 14 dates and stratigraphy, some of these Pre-Classic finds can be dated as early as 1,000 B.C. The reference is in the following".....(see Shook, E.M. & Kidder, A.V., 1952. Mound E-III-3, Kaminaljuyu, Guatemala; Contributions to American Anthropology & History No. 53 from Publ. 596, Carnegie Institution of Washington, D.C. (letter from de Borhegyi to Dr. Robert Ravicz, MPM archives December 1st 1960 )
The most direct evidence of Maya entheogen use comes from modern descendants of the Maya who use entheogenic drugs today.
Aztec
The Aztec entheogenic complex is extremely well documented. Through historical evidence, there is proof that the Aztecs used several forms of psychoactive drugs. These drugs include Ololiuqui (the seed of Rivea corymbosa), Teonanácatl (translated as “mushroom of the gods," a psilocybe mushroom) and sinicuichi (a flower added to drinks). The
Xochipilli statue, according to R.G. Wasson, gives the identity of several entheogenic plants. Other evidence for entheogenic use of the Aztecs comes from the
Florentine Codex, a series of 12 books vividly describing the Aztec culture and society, including the use of entheogenic drugs.
Native Americans of the Southwestern United States
There are several contemporary indigenous groups who use entheogens, most notably Native Americans of the
Southwestern United States
The Southwestern United States, also known as the American Southwest or simply the Southwest, is a geographic and cultural region of the United States that generally includes Arizona, New Mexico, and adjacent portions of California, Colorado, Ne ...
. Various tribes from California have been known to use strong alcoholic drinks as well as peyote to achieve visions and religious experiences.
Old World
Paleolithic
During the
Paleolithic
The Paleolithic or Palaeolithic (), also called the Old Stone Age (from Greek: παλαιός ''palaios'', "old" and λίθος ''lithos'', "stone"), is a period in human prehistory that is distinguished by the original development of stone too ...
, there is ample evidence of drug use as seen by preserved botanical remains and coprolites. Some scholars had suggested that the "Flower Burial" in
Shanidar Cave, a Paleolithic site in Iraq, was evidence of a shamanic death ritual, but more recent evidence and analysis has contradicted that claim. The most direct evidence we have from the Paleolithic in terms of art comes from
Tassili, Algeria cave paintings depicting ''
Psilocybe mairei
''Psilocybe mairei'' is a species of mushroom in the family Hymenogastraceae. It is found in Algeria and Morocco and contains the psychoactive compound psilocybin. (on Fondazione Museo Civico di Rovereto) The oldest example of rock art suggesting ...
'' mushrooms
dated 7000 to 9000 years before present. From this region, there are several
therianthropic images portraying the painter and the animals around him as one (an often cited effect of many psychedelic drugs,
Ego death or unity). One image, in particular, shows a man who has formed into one common form with a mushroom.
There are several Paleolithic sites that display therianthropic imagery. However, there is some debate as to whether or not sites like Lascaux or Chauvet were entheogenically inspired.
Mesolithic
A cave painting in Spain has been interpreted as depicting ''
Psilocybe hispanica
''Psilocybe hispanica'' is a species of fungus in the family Hymenogastraceae. It produces small brown mushrooms with conical to convex caps up to in diameter and stems long by thick. Reported as new to science in 2000, it is only known from ...
''.
See also
*
List of Entheogens
This page lists substances used in ritualistic context.
Psychoactive use
Entheogens
This is a list of species and genera that are used as entheogens or are used in an entheogenic concoction (such as ayahuasca). For ritualistic use they may be cl ...
*
Ancient use of cannabis
The history of cannabis and its usage by humans dates back to at least the third millennium BC in written history, and possibly as far back as the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (8800–6500 BCE) based on archaeological evidence. For millennia, the pla ...
*
Cannabis and religion
*
History of entheogenic drugs
*
List of Acacia species known to contain psychoactive alkaloids
This article is a list of ''Acacia'' species (''sensu lato'') that are known to contain psychoactive alkaloids, or are suspected of containing such alkaloids due to being psychoactive. The presence and constitution of alkaloids in nature can be hig ...
*
List of plants used for smoking
Various plants are used around the world for smoking due to various chemical compounds they contain and the effects of these chemicals on the human body. This list contains plants that are smoked, rather than those that are used in the process of ...
*
List of psychoactive plants
*
List of psychoactive plants, fungi, and animals
*
N,N-Dimethyltryptamine
*
Psilocybin mushrooms
*
Psychoactive cacti
Many Cactus, cacti are known to be psychoactive drug, psychoactive, containing substituted phenethylamine, phenethylamine alkaloids such as mescaline. However, the two main ritualistic (folkloric) genera are ''Echinopsis'', of which the most psycho ...
*
Stela of the cactus bearer
The stela of the cactus bearer is a monolith or stele of a single piece of granite, belonging to the Chavín culture of ancient Peru, which remains in its original location on the northwest side of the circular plaza at the archaeological site ...
References
Bibliography
* Bierhorst, John (1990). ''The Mythology of Mexico and Central America''.
William Morrow & Company,
New York
New York most commonly refers to:
* New York City, the most populous city in the United States, located in the state of New York
* New York (state), a state in the northeastern United States
New York may also refer to:
Film and television
* '' ...
.
*
Demarest, Arthur (2004). ''Ancient Maya: The Rise and Fall of the Rainforest Civilization''.
Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
*
Dibble, Charles E., et al. (trans). "Florentine Codex: Book 11 - Earthly Things". The School of American Research.
Santa Fe, New Mexico
Santa Fe ( ; , Spanish for 'Holy Faith'; tew, Oghá P'o'oge, Tewa for 'white shell water place'; tiw, Hulp'ó'ona, label=Tiwa language, Northern Tiwa; nv, Yootó, Navajo for 'bead + water place') is the capital of the U.S. state of New Mexico. ...
, 1963.
* Furst, Peter T. (1972) ''Flesh of the Gods: The Ritual Use of Hallucinogens'' (with contributions from
Wasson and others).
Praeger Publishers,
Westport.
*
Hofmann, Albert. "Teonanácatl and Ololiuqui, two ancient magic drugs of Mexico". In ''UNODC Bulletin on Narcotics'', Issue 1, pp. 3–14, 1971.
*
McKenna, Terence. ''
Food of the Gods''. (
New York
New York most commonly refers to:
* New York City, the most populous city in the United States, located in the state of New York
* New York (state), a state in the northeastern United States
New York may also refer to:
Film and television
* '' ...
,
Harper Collins) p. 84.
*
Wasson, Robert Gordon,
Stella Kramrisch
Stella Kramrisch (May 29, 1896 – August 31, 1993) was an American pioneering art historian and curator who was the leading specialist on Indian art for most of the 20th century. Her scholarship remains a benchmark to this day. She researched ...
,
Jonathan Ott and
Carl A. P. Ruck
Carl A. P. Ruck (born December 8, 1935, Bridgeport, Connecticut), is a professor in the Classical Studies department at Boston University. He received his B.A. at Yale University, his M.A. at the University of Michigan, and a Ph.D. at Harvard Uni ...
. (1986). ''Persephone's Quest: Entheogens and the Origins of Religion''.
* Roberts, T. B. (editor) (2001). ''Psychoactive Sacramentals: Essays on Entheogens and Religion.''
San Francisco: Council on Spiritual Practices.
* Roberts, T. B., and Hruby, P. J. (1995–2002). ''Religion and Psychoactive Sacraments An Entheogen Chrestomathy''. Online archive
Council on Spiritual Practices* Roberts, T. B. "Chemical Input—Religious Output: Entheogens." Chapter 10 in ''Where God and Science Meet: Vol. 3: The Psychology of Religious Experience''
Robert McNamara (editor)(2006).
Westport, Connecticut:
Praeger/
Greenwood Green wood is unseasoned wood.
Greenwood or Green wood may also refer to:
People
* Greenwood (surname)
Settlements
Australia
* Greenwood, Queensland, a locality in the Toowoomba Region
* Greenwood, Western Australia, a suburb of Perth
C ...
.
* Sharon, Douglas (2000). ''Shamanism & the Sacred Cactus: Ethnoarchaeological Evidence for San Pedro Use in Northern Peru.'' San Diego Museum of Man.
*
Torres, Constantino Manuel & David B. Repke (2006). ''Anadenanthera: Visionary Plant of Ancient South America''.
Haworth Press,
New York
New York most commonly refers to:
* New York City, the most populous city in the United States, located in the state of New York
* New York (state), a state in the northeastern United States
New York may also refer to:
Film and television
* '' ...
.
External links
Psychedelic Timelineby Tom Frame. Psychedelic Times.
{{DEFAULTSORT:Entheogenic Drugs And The Archaeological Record
Entheogens
Drug culture
Archaeology