English as a lingua franca (ELF) is the use of the

English language English is a West Germanic language of the Indo-European language family, with its earliest forms spoken by the inhabitants of early medieval England. It is named after the Angles, one of the ancient Germanic peoples that migrated to the is ...

"as a global means of inter-community communication" and can be understood as "''any use of English among speakers of different

first language A first language, native tongue, native language, mother tongue or L1 is the first language or dialect that a person has been exposed to from birth or within the critical period. In some countries, the term ''native language'' or ''mother tongu ...

s for whom English is the communicative medium of choice and often the only option''". ELF is "defined functionally by its use in intercultural communication rather than formally by its reference to native-speaker norms" whereas

English as a second or foreign language English as a second or foreign language is the use of English by speakers with different native languages. Language education for people learning English may be known as English as a second language (ESL), English as a foreign language (EF ...

aims at meeting native speaker norms and gives prominence to native speaker cultural aspects. While

lingua franca A lingua franca (; ; for plurals see ), also known as a bridge language, common language, trade language, auxiliary language, vehicular language, or link language, is a language systematically used to make communication possible between groups ...

s have been used for centuries, what makes ELF a novel phenomenon is the extent to which it is used in spoken, written and in computer-mediated communication. ELF research focuses on the pragmatics of variation which is manifest in the variable use of the resources of English for a wide range of globalized purposes, in important formal encounters such as business transactions, international diplomacy and conflict resolution, as well as in informal exchanges between international friends.

Globalization, Geopolitics, and ELF

Major technological advances in the 21st century have enabled instant global communication, thus breaking the barriers of space and

time Time is the continued sequence of existence and events that occurs in an apparently irreversible succession from the past, through the present, into the future. It is a component quantity of various measurements used to sequence events, to ...

between different locations on the

planet A planet is a large, rounded astronomical body that is neither a star nor its remnant. The best available theory of planet formation is the nebular hypothesis, which posits that an interstellar cloud collapses out of a nebula to create a you ...

. The world has turned into an interconnected global system, which requires a shared means of communication. English fulfills the need for a global

, as it has spread to large areas of the world due to * Colonisation, mainly by the

British Empire The British Empire was composed of the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates, and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It began with the overseas possessions and trading posts esta ...

, * the widespread teaching of English as a foreign language, * American manufacturing and exporting might, * the invention of the

Internet The Internet (or internet) is the global system of interconnected computer networks that uses the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to communicate between networks and devices. It is a '' network of networks'' that consists of private, pub ...

and its first widespread use in the

United States The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territorie ...

, and has been used more widely in

Europe Europe is a large peninsula conventionally considered a continent in its own right because of its great physical size and the weight of its history and traditions. Europe is also considered a Continent#Subcontinents, subcontinent of Eurasia ...

due to the American and

British British may refer to: Peoples, culture, and language * British people, nationals or natives of the United Kingdom, British Overseas Territories, and Crown Dependencies. ** Britishness, the British identity and common culture * British English, ...

victory in

World War II World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...

, along with the use of English spreading to former

Eastern Bloc The Eastern Bloc, also known as the Communist Bloc and the Soviet Bloc, was the group of socialist states of Central and Eastern Europe, East Asia, Southeast Asia, Africa, and Latin America under the influence of the Soviet Union that existed du ...

countries after the

Revolutions of 1989 The Revolutions of 1989, also known as the Fall of Communism, was a revolutionary wave that resulted in the end of most communist states in the world. Sometimes this revolutionary wave is also called the Fall of Nations or the Autumn of Natio ...

and the

dissolution of the Soviet Union The dissolution of the Soviet Union, also negatively connoted as rus, Разва́л Сове́тского Сою́за, r=Razvál Sovétskogo Soyúza, ''Ruining of the Soviet Union''. was the process of internal disintegration within the Sov ...

, among other factors. Because of the use of English as a lingua franca in international trade and intercultural communication, native speakers of English are outnumbered by non-native speakers, which is atypical for western European languages. A consequence of this is a sense of ownership of the language which is shared by different communities. For instance, international communication via ELF has facilitated exchange between

China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...

and the rest of the world, thus sustaining international trade. But once a language is appropriated by new communities, it is then adapted to their specific needs. Consequently, the English language is undergoing change, and this change is being brought about mostly by its non-native speakers.

Features of spoken ELF communication

The way English is used as a lingua franca is heavily dependent on the specific situation of use. Generally speaking, ELF interactions concentrate on function rather than form.Paradowski, Michał B. 2013
Understanding English as a Lingua Franca: A Complete Introduction to the Theoretical Nature and Practical Implications of English used as a Lingua Franca. Barbara Seidlhofer
The Interpreter and Translator Trainer 7(2) pecial Issue: English as a Lingua Franca. Implications for Translator and Interpreter Education 312–20 eview article In other words, communicative efficiency (i.e. getting the message across) is more important than grammatical correctness, provided that the grammar is good enough for the message to be intelligible. As a consequence, ELF interactions are very often hybrid. Speakers accommodate to each other's cultural backgrounds and may also use code-switching into other languages that they know.Cogo, Alessia and Dewey, Martin. 2006. “Efficiency in ELF communication. From pragmatic motives to lexico-grammatical innovation.” Nordic Journal of English Studies. http://gupea.ub.gu.se/handle/2077/3148 Based on th
Vienna-Oxford International Corpus of English
(VOICE) and additional research, the following features of ELF lexicogrammar have been identified: * shift in the use of articles (including some preference for zero articles) as in ''our countries have signed agreement about this'' * invariant question tags as in ''you’re very busy today, isn't it?'' (and use of other similar universal forms) * treating ‘who’ and ‘which’ as interchangeable relative pronouns, as in ''the picture who'' or ''a person which'' * shift of patterns of preposition use, for example ''we have to study about'' * preference for bare and/or full infinitive over the use of gerunds, as in ''I'm looking forward to see you tomorrow'' * extension to the collocational field of words with high semantic generality, for example ''take an operation'' * increased explicitness, for example ''how long time'' instead of ''how long'' * exploited redundancy, such as ellipsis of objects/complements of transitive verbs as in "I wanted to go with..." or "You can borrow...'" However, these features are by no means invariant or “obligatory”. Rather, these forms do not seem to compromise effective communication within an ELF setting when they do occur.

"Neutrality" of ELF

Although some researchers hold that English as a lingua franca is a neutral and culture-free tool, others hold that it carries the culture and language of its speakers. Recent linguistic discussions by ELF experts treat the interactants' cultural and linguistic background as a factor influencing language performance. For Hülmbauer, for instance, “it seems likely that the ELF users develop their own markers of identity (be they a common 'European' or 'international' nature or more individual ones which are created online, depending on the community of practice they are emerging).” In this view, ELF is multicultural rather than culture-free.

ELF and the native speaker

ELF is used most often between non-native speakers of English, but this does not mean that native speakers are excluded from ELF communication. However, very often they form a minority of the interlocutors. In ELF interactions, the importance lies in communication strategies other than nativeness, which can lead to communicative situations where those English native speakers who are not familiar with ELF and/or intercultural communication are at a disadvantage because they do not know how to use English appropriately in these situations. Most data on ELF interactions has been drawn from the domains of business and higher education, and that in largely European contexts, perhaps factors accounting for the relatively rare instances of miscommunication. Studies of Medical English as a Lingua Franca (MELF) provide opportunities to investigate ELF interactions where communicative precision is critical, and the migration of healthcare practitioners across international borders (a phenomenon consistent with the "deterritorialisation" of ELF generally), has created conditions where MELF interactions are increasingly commonplace. A research study of MELF interactions where nurses negotiated a patient handover simulation indicated that areas of unintelligibility represented a potential threat to patient safety, through misrecognition of vocabulary related to medication, as well as other areas of lexical imprecision. One study of a Japanese Medical English as a Lingua Franca (MELF) context showed that student doctors made use of empathic accommodation and solicitation strategies to make interactions more intelligible. Applying nonverbal cues was seen as being of importance to encourage simulated patients to express concerns, because silence may be interpreted as a sign of potential problems. Empathic doctor-patient communication then means not only understanding and sympathizing but having the ability to bridge the gap when patients are not willing to talk. An important issue when discussing ELF is the notion of speakers of ELF being active language users in their own right, who do not need to adhere to native speaker norms but use ELF to meet their communicative needs. Proponents of ELF thus reject the notion that it is a form of ‘deficient’ English, and describe ELF speakers as users of English, not as learners. Indeed, studies of communication breakdowns in ELF interactions demonstrate that successful lingua franca communication is far from 'anything goes'.

Attitude and motivation

Several attitude studies on the topic of ELF have already been conducted. One overarching factor seems to be a discrepancy between perceptions on the role of ELF in everyday interactions all over the globe on the one hand, and the dominance of as well as reliance on native speaker norms on the other hand. Breiteneder argues that learners of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) often have an integrative motivation for learning and using English since they wish to identify with the culture and values of English native speakers. Thus, native speaker norms occupy a central place if English is studied as a

foreign language A foreign language is a language that is not an official language of, nor typically spoken in, a given country, and that native speakers from that country must usually acquire through conscious learning - be this through language lessons at schoo ...

. In contrast, English as Lingua Franca users tend to focus on effective communication with speakers of other linguistic backgrounds. In ELF interactions, intelligibility is key, which may not necessitate an advantage for native speakers (see above).

Debates in ELF

Colin Sowden opened the debate with a paper in which he discusses which version of English to teach to second

language Language is a structured system of communication. The structure of a language is its grammar and the free components are its vocabulary. Languages are the primary means by which humans communicate, and may be conveyed through a variety of met ...

(L2) learners. He argues that some ELF scholars want ELF to replace Standard

English English usually refers to: * English language * English people English may also refer to: Peoples, culture, and language * ''English'', an adjective for something of, from, or related to England ** English national ide ...

as the model to be used in learning English. Sowden claims that Standard English, especially British English, has a colonial baggage that still affects the status of English in post-colonial countries and it is this negative value that has led ELF researchers to an attempt to describe and posit a neutralized version of English and to make it a universal one that belongs to every speaker, both native and second language speakers. Sowden argues that introducing ELF in ELT will lead to differences between schools where this is implemented, and schools which have the freedom to use a native standard model, favouring the latter. He concludes that ELF will not replace Anglo-Saxon native-speaker models in the near future as there are too many constraints linked to ELF. For Sowden, the use of multilingual and local teachers can also be beneficial for L2 learners, as these teachers have knowledge of the local culture and spoken languages and the constraints they have on learning English. The way forward according to Sowden is to focus on communicative ability, not on universal conformity. Alessia Cogo challenged Sowden's critical paper on ELF in 2012 by stating that his arguments were based on outdated research and a confusion between the terms World Englishes (WE) and ELF. First, she argues that ELF is not one monolithic or single variety, but rather that it is used by highly varied socio-/linguacultural networks which leads to a more fluid use of the language building on the different ways in which people use a language to communicate with each other. Secondly, Cogo draws on the importance of studying accommodation in ELF interactions by emphasising the different ways in which people adjust their English at the level of words, grammar and discourse in ELF communication instead of focusing on the core features of ELF as suggested by Sowden. Here, the speaker's ability to move away from the traditional speech patterns of the native varieties is argued to be an important part of ELF research. Lastly, Cogo contests Sowden's view on ELF researchers themselves. Sowden argues that ELF researchers encourage ELF speakers to use specific varieties of English over others, an argument that Cogo refutes by stating that researchers only use empirical data to show what happens in ELF interactions, and never to tell speakers what to use. Cogo further cites various studies in the field that have demonstrated that ELF communication is fluid and innovative, with an emphasis on highly variable linguistic forms. Sewell argued that the debate about ELF between Sowden and Cogo fails to acknowledge the variation that characterises language use today. He claims that it is counterproductive to polarise ELF and non-ELF and native and non-native speakers, as there is great diversity in all areas of English language usage. Whilst recognising Cogo's clarifications regarding several misconceptions of ELF, Sewell also points out and discusses some of the questions Cogo's article arises. He disagrees with the definition of ELF being based on a distinction between non-native and native language use. He claims that Cogo's approach is too essentialist, because her definition of ELF is based on language features. The approach to ELF should be more non-essentialist according to Sewell who points out that ELF does not involve a set of features or skills that distinguishes it from languages in general, as all language usage is varied. Sewell then considers the implications of the ELF debate for ELT professionals and learners of English, and he highlights the importance of acknowledging language variation when teaching and learning English. Furthermore, he emphasises the importance of presenting this variation to learners, at the appropriate level, and he wishes that this dynamic relationship between ELF and ENL (English as a Native Language) will be central to how we view language usage. Dewey criticises Sewell's critical position on the debate, showing how it lacks substance and largely misrepresents the field. Dewey argues that even though Sewell's article is meant to be a critique of ELF, several of his ‘non-essentialist’ views on language are compatible with those of Cogo and other ELF researchers, thus undermining his argument. However, Sewell's paper, according to Dewey, does raise awareness of the need to rethink the terms used when talking about ELF. Dewey defends ELF by emphasising the importance of variability and the dynamic nature of ELF. The distinctiveness of ELF comes from the rapid pace of language evolution and innovation, enhanced in the ELF context due to the linguistic and cultural diversity of English speakers, where understanding is more important than using Standard features.

Criticism

Criticism of ELF generally falls into three camps: Those who argue that the language studied consists of learner errors rather than authentic variation; those who argue that ELF scholars are perpetuating the idea that ELF is a reified variety of English; and those who feel it is upholding notions of neutrality in the face of global domination through languages and discourse. Regarding the first stance, some linguists claim that variation in ELF is completely haphazard and devoid of any patterns, and therefore not worth studying. Most importantly, proponents of this view reject the idea that emerging insights into how English is used as a lingua franca can provide useful input with regard to the aims and methods of English language teaching. Regarding the criticism of ELF and variety building, some claim that ELF research has inherited the legacies of traditional linguistics, which contain some obstacles when considering language use in context. For example, there are claims that variationist discourses have entered into some ELF accounts, creating too much emphasis on accounting for language forms and authenticating them numerically, rather than considering all the contextual factors and variations that constitute communicative practices across ELF settings. This leads to linear connections between intention, behaviour, culture, etc., and English usages, which can be false lines of correlation. It also creates a focus on what is different rather than what is there, which moves from a descriptive agenda to a pragmatic (and, arguably, problematic) one. Such criticisms tend to be cooperative and complementary to the ELF field of enquiry, and not as overtly confrontational as those who either take the previous or following stance. The other line of criticism argues that concepts such as ELF provide a useful (terminological) veneer for continued (linguistic) domination by English-speaking countries through their political, educational, and cultural institutions. This concept of

linguistic imperialism Linguistic imperialism or language imperialism is occasionally defined as "the transfer of a dominant language to other people". This language "transfer" (or rather unilateral imposition) comes about because of imperialism. The transfer is consid ...

has been developed and heavily used by

Robert Phillipson Robert Henry Lawrence Phillipson (born 18 March 1942 in Gourock, Scotland) is Professor Emeritus in the Department of Management, Society and Communication at Copenhagen Business School in Denmark. He is best known for his seminal work on lingui ...

. Although Phillipson suggests this idea, there are some controversial facts which put Phillipson in a contrast situation. Another example is the case of Juliane House, a German scholar who explains in her article "English as a lingua franca: A threat to multilingualism?" her relation to English after World War II. Contrastingly, Davies criticises the concept and argues that it is “inhabited” by two cultures: one is a culture of guilt ("colonies should never have happened") the other is that of romantic despair ("we shouldn’t be doing what we are doing").

Related terminology

Other terms with slightly different meanings have been used in the debate and research on the global spread of English, including "English as an International Language" (EIL), "Global English", "Global Englishes", "

International English International English is the concept of using the English language as a global means of communication similar to an international auxiliary language, and often refers to the movement towards an international standard for the language. Relat ...

", "World English" and "

World Englishes World Englishes is a term for emerging localised or indigenised varieties of English, especially varieties that have developed in territories influenced by the United Kingdom or the United States. The study of World Englishes consists of ident ...

", and "Globish" (Global English). "Global Englishes" (GEs) is generally seen to align closely with ELF, seeing that language use is variable and is very much intermingled with cultural flows, situated contextualisation, and complex interactional alignment between people; whereas the other terms mentioned above tend to be seen as more linguistic in nature (e.g., "'Globish", proposing forms of simplified English needed for communication, vs. ELF and GEs, describing what people actually do when communicating imple or not and "World Englishes", generally accounting for language features and commonalities by region/group, vs. ELF, looking at situated communicative use of English). One of the key aspects of terminology used in the ELF field of enquiry is that a standardized version of any English variety is not implied, with the dynamic, situated and complex nature of language brought to the fore.Baird, Robert, Baker, Will and Kitazawa, Mariko (2014). The Complexity of ELF. ''Journal of English as a Lingua Franca''.

Notes

References and further reading

*Adolphs, Svenja. 2005. “’I don’t think I should learn all this.’ – A Longitudinal View of Attitudes Towards ‘Native Speaker’ English.” In: Gnutzmann, Claus; Intemann, Frauke. (eds.) The Globalisation of English and the English language classroom. Tübingen: Gunter Narr Verlag, 118-131. *Björkman, Beyza. 2008. “'So where we are?' Spoken lingua franca English at a technical university in Sweden.” English Today 94 (2), 35-41. *Bosso, Rino. 2018. �
First steps in exploring computer-mediated English as a lingua franca
��. In Martin-Rubió, Xavier (ed.)
''Contextualising English as a lingua franca: from data to insights''
Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars, 10-35. *Breiteneder, Angelika Maria. 2005. “Exploiting redundancy in English as a European Lingua Franca: The case of the ‘third person –s’.” Unpublished MA Thesis, University of Vienna. http://www.univie.ac.at/voice/page/abstracts/breiteneder_2005.pdf *Breiteneder, Angelika. 2009. English as a lingua franca in Europe. A natural development. Saarbrücken: VDM Verlag Müller. rint version of Breiteneder 2005.*Cogo, Alessia and Dewey, Martin. 2006. “Efficiency in ELF communication. From pragmatic motives to lexico-grammatical innovation.” Nordic Journal of English Studies. http://gupea.ub.gu.se/handle/2077/3148 *Cogo, Allessia. 2008. “English as a Lingua Franca. Form follows function.” English Today 95 (3), 58–61. *Davies, Alan. 1996. “Review Article: Ironising the myth of Linguicism.” Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development. 17:6, 485–596. *Ferguson, Gibbson. 2006. “Issues in researching English as a lingua franca: a conceptual enquiry.” International Journal of Applied Linguistics 19: 2, 117–135. *Firth, Alan. 1996. “The discursive accomplishment of normality. On 'lingua franca' English and conversation analysis.” Journal of Pragmatics 26, 237–59, qtd. in Lesznyák 2002. *Firth, Alan. 2009. “The lingua franca factor.” Intercultural pragmatics 6: 2, 147–170. *Galloway, Nicola & Rose, Heath. 2015. Introducing Global Englishes. Arbingdon, UK: Routledge. *Gnutzmann, Claus; Intemann, Frauke (eds.). 2005. The Globalisation of English and the English language classroom. Tübingen: Gunter Narr Verlag. *Grau, Maike. 2005. “English as a global language – What do future teachers have to say?” In *Gnutzmann, Claus; Intemann, Frauke (eds.). The Globalisation of English and the English Language Classroom. Tübingen: Gunter Narr, 261–274. * House, Juliane. 2002. “Developing pragmatic competence in English as a Lingua Franca.” In Knapp, Karlfried; Meierkord, Christiane (eds.). Lingua franca communication. Frankfurt am Main: Peter, 245–267. *House, Juliane. 2003. “English as a lingua franca: A threat to multilingualism?” Journal of Sociolinguistics 7: 4, 556–578. *Hülmbauer, Cornelia. 2007. “'You moved, aren't?' The relationship between lexicogrammatical correctness and communicative effectiveness in English as a lingua franca.” Views 16: 2, 3-36. http://www.univie.ac.at/Anglistik/Views_0702.pdf. *Hülmbauer, Cornelia ''et al.'' 2008 “Introducing English as a lingua franca (ELF): Precursor and partner in intercultural communication.” Synergies Europe 3, 25–36. https://web.archive.org/web/20110721023252/http://ressources-cla.univ-fcomte.fr/gerflint/Europe3/hulmbauer.pdf. *Jenkins, Jennifer; Seidlhofer, Barbara. 2001. “Bringing Europe's lingua franca into the classroom.” The Guardian Weekly 19 April 2001. https://www.theguardian.com/education/2001/apr/19/languages.highereducation1. * Jenkins, Jennifer. 2007. English as a Lingua Franca: Attitudes and Identity. Oxford: Oxford University Press. *Kalocsai, Karolina. 2009. “Erasmus exchange students. A behind-the-scenes view into an ELF community of practice”. Apples – Journal of Applied Linguistics Series 3 (1), 25–49. http://apples.jyu.fi (6 July 2010). *Klimpfinger, Theresa. 2005. “The role of speakers' first and other languages in English as a lingua franca talk.” Unpublished MA Thesis, University of Vienna. http://www.univie.ac.at/voice/page/abstracts/klimpfinger_2005.pdf. *Klimpfinger, Theresa. 2007. “'Mind you, sometimes you have to mix'. The role of code-switching in English as a lingua franca.” Views 16: 2, 36–61. https://web.archive.org/web/20110706090020/http://anglistik.univie.ac.at/fileadmin/user_upload/dep_anglist/weitere_Uploads/Views/Views_0702.pdf. *Knapp, Karlfried; Meierkord, Christiane (eds.). 2002. Lingua franca communication. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. *Lesznyák, Ágnes. 2002. “From chaos to the smallest common denominator. Topic management in English lingua franca communication.” In Knapp, Karlfried; Meierkord, Christiane (eds.). Lingua franca communication. Frankfurt am Main et al.: Peter Lang, 163–194. https://books.google.com/books?id=KDi30N8c2kgC&pg=PA263&lpg=PA263#v=onepage&f=false. *MacKenzie, Ian. 2013. English as a Lingua Franca: Theorizing and Teaching English. London: Routledge. *MacKenzie, Ian. 2018. Language Contact and the Future of English. London: Routledge. *Mauranen, Anna; Ranta, Elina (eds.). 2009. English as a lingua franca. Studies and findings. Newcastle upon Tine: Cambridge Scholars. *Mollin, Sandra. 2006. Euro English. Assessing Variety Status. Tübingen: Gunter Narr. https://books.google.com/books?id=qPhULmMmqJMC&printsec=frontcover&source=bn#v=onepage&f=false. *Meierkord, Christiane. 2002. “’Language stripped bare’ or ‘linguistic masala’? Culture in lingua franca conversation.” In: Knapp, Karlfried; Meierkord, Christiane (eds.). Lingua franca communication. Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 109-133. *Paradowski, Michał B. 2008, Apr. Winds of change in the English language – Air of peril for native speakers?

Novitas-ROYAL ''Novitas-ROYAL (Research on Youth and Language)'' is a biannual open access peer-reviewed academic journal covering research and critical discussion about all aspects of language, linguistics, applied linguistics, and learning and teaching of for ...

(Research on Youth and Language) 2(1), 92–119. http://www.novitasroyal.org/paradowski.pdf *Paradowski, Michał B. 2013. Understanding English as a Lingua Franca: A Complete Introduction to the Theoretical Nature and Practical Implications of English used as a Lingua Franca. Barbara Seidlhofer. The Interpreter and Translator Trainer 7(2) pecial Issue: English as a Lingua Franca. Implications for Translator and Interpreter Education 312–20 eview article https://www.academia.edu/3318842/Barbara_Seidlhofer_Understanding_English_as_a_Lingua_Franca_A_Complete_Introduction_to_the_Theoretical_Nature_and_Practical_Implications_of_English_used_as_a_Lingua_Franca_Review_article_ *Phillipson, Robert. 2001. “English for globalization or for the world’s people?”. International Review of Education 47: 3, 185–200. *Phillipson, Robert. 2008. “Lingua franca or lingua frankensteinia? English in European integration and globalization.” World Englishes 27: 2, 250–267. *Pitzl, Marie-Luise. 2009. “'We should not wake up any dogs': Idiom and metaphor in ELF.”. In Mauranen, Anna and Ranta, Elina (eds.). English as a Lingua Franca: Studies and findings. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Press, 298–322. *Pölzl, Ulrike. 2005. “Exploring the third space. Negotiating culture in English as a lingua franca.” Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Vienna. *Pölzl, Ulrike; Seidlhofer, Barbara. 2006. “In and on their own terms. The ‘habitat factor’ in English as a lingua franca interactions.” International Journal of the Sociology of Language 177, 151-17. *Vienna Oxford International Corpus of English (VOICE) http://www.univie.ac.at/voice/ *Seidlhofer, Barbara. 2001. “Closing a conceptual gap: the case for a description of English as a lingua franca.” International Journal of Applied Linguistics 11: 2, 133–158. *Seidlhofer, Barbara. 2003. “A concept of international English and related issues: From ‘Real English’ to ‘Realistic English’?” In: Council of Europe. Language Policy Division. Strasbourg: Council of Europe. http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/source/seidlhoferen.pdf. *Seidlhofer, Barbara. 2004. “Research Perspectives on teaching English as a Lingua Franca.” Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 24, 209–239. *Seidlhofer, Barbara. 2005. “English as a lingua franca.” ELF Journal 59: 4, 339–340. *Seidlhofer, Barbara. 2006. “Towards making ‘Euro-English’ a linguistic reality.” In: Bolton, Kinglsey; Kachru, Braj B. (eds.). World Englishes. Critical Concepts in Linguistics. Volume III. London: Routledge, 47-50. *Seidlhofer, Barbara. 2011.
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