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One aspect of energy poverty is lack of access to clean, modern fuels and technologies for cooking. As of 2020, more than 2.6 billion people in developing countries routinely cook with fuels such as wood, animal dung, coal, or kerosene. Burning these types of fuels in open fires or traditional stoves causes harmful household air pollution, resulting in an estimated 3.8 million deaths annually according to the World Health Organization (WHO), and contributes to various health, socio-economic, and environmental problems.
A high priority in global sustainable development is to make clean cooking facilities universally available and affordable. Stoves and appliances that run on electricity, liquid petroleum gas (LPG),
, UNDP. 2005. Accessed 30 April 2007. Biomass energy sourced primarily from savannah woodlands includes firewood for inhabitants and charcoal for urban use. A small percentage is sourced by neighboring communities from closed and protected forests which are generally found in high population density areas. While biomass harvesting in sensitive areas is problematic, it is now determined that the great majority of biomass clearing is due to agricultural expansion and land conversion.Healthy Stoves and Fuels for Developing Nations and the Global Environment
Kammen, D. 2003. Accessed 12 May 2007. Approximately 38% of households "in high agro-ecological zones" utilize agricultural waste due to frequent shortages of conventional fuel-wood. Use of crop residue and animal waste for domestic energy has detrimental results on soil quality and agricultural and livestock productivity. These materials are ultimately not available as soil conditioners, organic fertilizer, and livestock fodder, not to mention the "cumulative effects on national food security".
A high priority in global sustainable development is to make clean cooking facilities universally available and affordable.
According to the WHO, stoves and appliances that are powered by electricity, liquid petroleum gas (LPG), piped natural gas (PNG), biogas, alcohol, and solar heat are "clean". Best-in-class fan gasifier stoves that burn biomass pellets can be classified as clean cooking facilities if they are correctly operated and the pellets have sufficiently low levels of moisture, but these stoves are not widely available.
Electricity can be used to power appliances such as electric pressure cookers, rice cookers, and highly efficient induction stoves, in addition to standard electric stoves. Induction cooking, Electric induction stoves are so efficient that they create less pollution than liquified petroleum gas (LPG) even when connected to coal power sources, and are sometimes cheaper. For stews, beans, rice and other foods that can be adapted to electric pressure cookers, the savings are even greater.. As of 2019, 770 million people do not have access to electricity, and for many others electricity is not affordable or reliable. Because access to electricity is also a high priority in global sustainable development, integrated planning for new and improved electricity infrastructure that includes both typical electric loads as well as cooking loads is beginning to gain momentum. Indeed, this kind of integrated resource planning for electricity systems may deliver faster and lower-cost solutions to both access to electricity and to clean cooking.
Biogas digesters convert waste, such as human waste and animal dung, into a methane-rich gas that burns cleanly. Biogas systems are a promising technology in areas where each household has at least two large animals to provide dung, and a steady supply of water is also available.
Solar cookers collect and concentrate the sun's heat when sunshine is available.
Improved cook stoves (ICS) are biomass stoves that are intended to replace traditional cooking facilities such as three-stone fires or mud stoves. Traditional cooking facilities allow heat to escape into the open air, which wastes fuel. Smoke is vented into the home rather than out through a chimney.
Compared to traditional cook stoves, ICS are usually more fuel-efficient and aim to reduce the negative health impacts associated with exposure to toxic smoke. As of 2016, no widely-available biomass stoves meet the standards for clean cooking as defined by the WHO. A 2020 review found only one biomass stove on the market that met WHO standards in field conditions.
Despite their limitations, ICS are an important interim solution where deploying fully "clean" solutions that use electricity, gas, or alcohol is less feasible. As of 2009, less than 30% of people who cook with some sort of biomass stove use ICS.
- World Health Organization fact sheet. Opportunities to educate communities on reducing household indoor air pollution exposure include festival collaborations, religious meetings, and medical outreach clinics. Community health workers represent a significant resource for educating communities to help raise awareness regarding reducing the effects of indoor air pollution.
Many users of clean stoves and fuels continue to make frequent use of traditional fuels and stoves, a phenomenon known as "fuel stacking" or "stove stacking". For instance, a recent study in Kenya found that households that are primary LPG users consume 42 percent as much charcoal as households that are primary charcoal users.
When stacking is practiced, the introduction of clean cooking facilities may not reduce household air pollution enough to make a meaningful difference in health outcomes. There are many reasons to continue to use traditional fuels and stoves, such as unreliable fuel supply, the cost of fuel, the ability of stoves to accommodate different types of pots and cooking techniques, and the need to travel long distances to repair stoves.
Research and implementation efforts are frequently pursued with insufficient coordination with supporting organizations, which, in many cases has led to widespread implementation of so called "improved" stoves that have sometimes failed to deliver on the promise of reducing indoor air pollution. Cookstove implementation efforts have often achieved mixed results because of technical and social complexities, such as the need to involve both women (who typically are responsible for cooking) and men (who typically control household spending).
Efforts to improve access to clean cooking fuels and stoves have barely kept up with population growth, and current and planned policies would still leave 2.4 billion people without access in 2030.
Transitioning to cleaner cooking methods is expected to either slightly raise greenhouse gas emissions or decrease emissions, even if the replacement fuels are fossil fuels. There is evidence that switching to LPG and PNG has a smaller climate effect than the combustion of solid fuels, which emits methane and black carbon. The burning of residential solid fuels accounts for up to 58 percent of global black carbon emissions. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change stated in 2018, "The costs of achieving nearly universal access to electricity and clean fuels for cooking and heating are projected to be between 72 and 95 billion USD per year until 2030 with minimal effects on GHG emissions."
Universal access to clean cooking is an element of the UN Sustainable Development Goal 7, whose first target is: "By 2030, ensure universal access to affordable, reliable and modern energy services".United Nations (2017) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017, :File:A RES 71 313 E.pdf, Work of the Statistical Commission pertaining to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development
A/RES/71/313
Progress in clean cooking would facilitate progress in other Sustainable Development goals, such as eliminating poverty (Sustainable Development Goal 1, Goal 1), good health and well-being (Sustainable Development Goal 3, Goal 3), gender equality (Sustainable Development Goal 5, Goal 5), and climate action (Sustainable Development Goal 13, Goal 13). An indicator of Goal 7 is the proportion of population with primary reliance on clean fuels and technologies for cooking, heating, and lighting, using the WHO's definition of "clean".UN Statistics (2016
Goal 7 Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all
(Updated on 30 March 2016)
One aspect of energy poverty is lack of access to clean, modern fuels and technologies for cooking. As of 2020, more than 2.6 billion people in developing countries routinely cook with fuels such as wood, animal dung, coal, or kerosene. Burning these types of fuels in open fires or traditional stoves causes harmful household air pollution, resulting in an estimated 3.8 million deaths annually according to the World Health Organization (WHO), and contributes to various health, socio-economic, and environmental problems.
A high priority in global sustainable development is to make clean cooking facilities universally available and affordable. Stoves and appliances that run on electricity, liquid petroleum gas (LPG), piped natural gas
Natural gas (also called fossil gas or simply gas) is a naturally occurring mixture of gaseous hydrocarbons consisting primarily of methane in addition to various smaller amounts of other higher alkanes. Low levels of trace gases like carbon di ...
(PNG), biogas, alcohol, and solar heat meet WHO guidelines for clean cooking. Stoves that burn biomass more efficiently than traditional stoves are known as "improved cookstoves", and are an important interim solution in areas where deploying cleaner technologies is less feasible.
Universal access to clean cooking facilities would have large benefits for environmental protection and for gender equality.
Issues with traditional cooking fuels
Health impacts
As of 2020, more than 2.6 billion people in developing countries rely on burning pollutingbiomass fuels
Biofuel is a fuel that is produced over a short time span from biomass, rather than by the very slow natural processes involved in the formation of fossil fuels, such as oil. According to the United States Energy Information Administration (EIA ...
such as wood, dry dung, coal, or kerosene for cooking, which causes harmful household air pollution and also contributes significantly to outdoor air pollution. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that cooking-related pollution causes 3.8 million annual deaths. The Global Burden of Disease Study, Global Burden of Disease study estimated the number of deaths in 2017 at 1.6 million.
Solid fuel smoke contains thousands of substances, many of which are hazardous to human health. The most well understood of these substances are Carbon monoxide (data page), carbon monoxide (CO); small particulates, particulate matter; nitrous oxide; Sulfur oxide, sulfur oxides; a range of Volatile organic compound, volatile organic compounds, including formaldehyde, benzene and 1,3-Butadiene, 1,3-butadiene; and Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon, polycyclic aromatic compounds, such as Benzo(a)pyrene, benzo-a-pyrene, which are thought to have both short and long term health consequences.Peabody, J. W., Riddell, T. J., Smith, K. R., Liu, Y., Zhao, Y., Gong, J., ... & Sinton, J. E. (2005). Indoor air pollution in rural China: cooking fuels, stoves, and health status. Archives of environmental & occupational health, 60(2), 86-95.
Exposure to household air pollution (HAP) nearly doubles the risk of childhood pneumonia and is responsible for 45 percent of all pneumonia deaths in children under five years of age. Emerging evidence shows that HAP is also a risk factor for cataracts, the leading cause of blindness in lower-middle-income countries, and low birth weight. Cooking with open fires or unsafe stoves is a leading cause of burns among women and children in developing countries.
Impacts on women and girls
Health effects are concentrated among women, who are likely to be responsible for cooking, and young children. The work of gathering fuel exposes women and children to safety risks and often consumes 15 or more hours per week, constraining their available time for education, rest, and paid work. Women and girls must often walk long distances to obtain cooking fuel, and, as a result, face increased risk of physical and sexual violence. Many children, particularly girls, may not attend school in order to help their mothers with firewood collection and food preparation.Environmental impacts
Mortality and burden of disease are not the only detrimental effects of utilizing inefficient energy technology such as the combustion of biomass. Serious local environmental damage, including desertification, can be caused by excessive harvesting of wood and other combustible material. For example, Kenya's predominant energy source is biomass, providing more than 90 per cent of rural household energy needs, about one-third in the form of charcoal and the rest from firewood.Global Village Energy Partnership, Nairobi, Kenya, UNDP. 2005. Accessed 30 April 2007. Biomass energy sourced primarily from savannah woodlands includes firewood for inhabitants and charcoal for urban use. A small percentage is sourced by neighboring communities from closed and protected forests which are generally found in high population density areas. While biomass harvesting in sensitive areas is problematic, it is now determined that the great majority of biomass clearing is due to agricultural expansion and land conversion.Healthy Stoves and Fuels for Developing Nations and the Global Environment
Kammen, D. 2003. Accessed 12 May 2007. Approximately 38% of households "in high agro-ecological zones" utilize agricultural waste due to frequent shortages of conventional fuel-wood. Use of crop residue and animal waste for domestic energy has detrimental results on soil quality and agricultural and livestock productivity. These materials are ultimately not available as soil conditioners, organic fertilizer, and livestock fodder, not to mention the "cumulative effects on national food security".
Terminology
The term "clean cookstove" has often been used without defining what the term means. Organizations vary in how they define "clean": * According to the WHO, cooking facilities are "clean" if their emissions of carbon monoxide and Fine Particulate Matter, fine particulate matter are below certain levels. As of 2020, the vast majority of stoves that burn biomass fuel do not qualify as clean under WHO standards even if they are more efficient than traditional stoves. * The Clean Cooking Alliance uses the term "clean cooking" more broadly. Its definition includes stoves that burn biomass fuel more efficiently than traditional stoves. The WHO has criticized the marketing of biomass cookstoves as "improved" when they have not been tested against standards and their health benefits are unclear.WHO-recommended clean cooking facilities
A high priority in global sustainable development is to make clean cooking facilities universally available and affordable.
According to the WHO, stoves and appliances that are powered by electricity, liquid petroleum gas (LPG), piped natural gas (PNG), biogas, alcohol, and solar heat are "clean". Best-in-class fan gasifier stoves that burn biomass pellets can be classified as clean cooking facilities if they are correctly operated and the pellets have sufficiently low levels of moisture, but these stoves are not widely available.
Electricity can be used to power appliances such as electric pressure cookers, rice cookers, and highly efficient induction stoves, in addition to standard electric stoves. Induction cooking, Electric induction stoves are so efficient that they create less pollution than liquified petroleum gas (LPG) even when connected to coal power sources, and are sometimes cheaper. For stews, beans, rice and other foods that can be adapted to electric pressure cookers, the savings are even greater.. As of 2019, 770 million people do not have access to electricity, and for many others electricity is not affordable or reliable. Because access to electricity is also a high priority in global sustainable development, integrated planning for new and improved electricity infrastructure that includes both typical electric loads as well as cooking loads is beginning to gain momentum. Indeed, this kind of integrated resource planning for electricity systems may deliver faster and lower-cost solutions to both access to electricity and to clean cooking.
Biogas digesters convert waste, such as human waste and animal dung, into a methane-rich gas that burns cleanly. Biogas systems are a promising technology in areas where each household has at least two large animals to provide dung, and a steady supply of water is also available.
Solar cookers collect and concentrate the sun's heat when sunshine is available.
Improved cook stoves
Improved cook stoves (ICS) are biomass stoves that are intended to replace traditional cooking facilities such as three-stone fires or mud stoves. Traditional cooking facilities allow heat to escape into the open air, which wastes fuel. Smoke is vented into the home rather than out through a chimney.
Compared to traditional cook stoves, ICS are usually more fuel-efficient and aim to reduce the negative health impacts associated with exposure to toxic smoke. As of 2016, no widely-available biomass stoves meet the standards for clean cooking as defined by the WHO. A 2020 review found only one biomass stove on the market that met WHO standards in field conditions.
Despite their limitations, ICS are an important interim solution where deploying fully "clean" solutions that use electricity, gas, or alcohol is less feasible. As of 2009, less than 30% of people who cook with some sort of biomass stove use ICS.
Benefits
Improved cookstoves are more efficient, meaning that the stove's users spend less time gathering wood or other fuels, while reducing deforestation and air pollution. However, a closed stove may result in production of more black carbon, soot and ultra-fine particles than an open fire would. Some designs also make the stove safer, preventing burns that often occur when children stumble into open fires. The efficiency improvements of ICS do not necessarily translate into meaningful reductions in health risks because for certain conditions, such as childhood pneumonia, the relationship between pollution levels and effects on the body has been shown to be Non-linear effects, non-linear. This means, for example, that a 50 percent reduction in exposure would not halve the health risk. A 2020 systematic review found that ICS usage led to modest improvements in terms of blood pressure, shortness of breath, emissions of cancer-causing substances, and cardiovascular diseases, but no improvements in pregnancy outcomes or children's health. Substantial variations in emissions and fuel consumption have been observed across ranges of cookstove designs and between laboratory and field test conditions. At present, a standard testing mechanism does not exist to establish the true impact of alternative cookstove designs as well as descriptive language for exposure. Stove testing studies are not always consistent depending largely on the discipline of investigators and their scientific specialization. The World Health Organization encourages further research to develop biomass stove technology that is low-emission, affordable, durable, and meets users' needs.Non-technological interventions
Behavioral change interventions, in reducing childhood household exposures, have the potential to reduce household air pollution exposure by 20 to 98%. Indoor Air Pollution (IAP) exposure can be greatly reduced by cooking outdoors, reducing time spent in the cooking area, keeping the kitchen door open while cooking, avoid leaning over the fire while attending to the meal preparation, staying away while carrying children when cooking and keeping the children away from the cooking area. Negative impacts can also be reduced by changes to the environment (e.g. use of a chimney), drying fuel wood before use, and using a lid during cooking.Indoor air pollution and health- World Health Organization fact sheet. Opportunities to educate communities on reducing household indoor air pollution exposure include festival collaborations, religious meetings, and medical outreach clinics. Community health workers represent a significant resource for educating communities to help raise awareness regarding reducing the effects of indoor air pollution.
Challenges
Many users of clean stoves and fuels continue to make frequent use of traditional fuels and stoves, a phenomenon known as "fuel stacking" or "stove stacking". For instance, a recent study in Kenya found that households that are primary LPG users consume 42 percent as much charcoal as households that are primary charcoal users.
When stacking is practiced, the introduction of clean cooking facilities may not reduce household air pollution enough to make a meaningful difference in health outcomes. There are many reasons to continue to use traditional fuels and stoves, such as unreliable fuel supply, the cost of fuel, the ability of stoves to accommodate different types of pots and cooking techniques, and the need to travel long distances to repair stoves.
Research and implementation efforts are frequently pursued with insufficient coordination with supporting organizations, which, in many cases has led to widespread implementation of so called "improved" stoves that have sometimes failed to deliver on the promise of reducing indoor air pollution. Cookstove implementation efforts have often achieved mixed results because of technical and social complexities, such as the need to involve both women (who typically are responsible for cooking) and men (who typically control household spending).
Efforts to improve access to clean cooking fuels and stoves have barely kept up with population growth, and current and planned policies would still leave 2.4 billion people without access in 2030.
Environmental and sustainable development effects
Transitioning to cleaner cooking methods is expected to either slightly raise greenhouse gas emissions or decrease emissions, even if the replacement fuels are fossil fuels. There is evidence that switching to LPG and PNG has a smaller climate effect than the combustion of solid fuels, which emits methane and black carbon. The burning of residential solid fuels accounts for up to 58 percent of global black carbon emissions. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change stated in 2018, "The costs of achieving nearly universal access to electricity and clean fuels for cooking and heating are projected to be between 72 and 95 billion USD per year until 2030 with minimal effects on GHG emissions."
Universal access to clean cooking is an element of the UN Sustainable Development Goal 7, whose first target is: "By 2030, ensure universal access to affordable, reliable and modern energy services".United Nations (2017) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017, :File:A RES 71 313 E.pdf, Work of the Statistical Commission pertaining to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable DevelopmentA/RES/71/313
Progress in clean cooking would facilitate progress in other Sustainable Development goals, such as eliminating poverty (Sustainable Development Goal 1, Goal 1), good health and well-being (Sustainable Development Goal 3, Goal 3), gender equality (Sustainable Development Goal 5, Goal 5), and climate action (Sustainable Development Goal 13, Goal 13). An indicator of Goal 7 is the proportion of population with primary reliance on clean fuels and technologies for cooking, heating, and lighting, using the WHO's definition of "clean".UN Statistics (2016
Goal 7 Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all
(Updated on 30 March 2016)
See also
*Energy poverty *Indoor air pollution in developing nations *Sustainable energyReferences
Book sources
* * * *{{cite book , ref={{harvid, IPCC SR15 Ch5, 2018 , year=2018 , chapter=Chapter 5: Sustainable Development, Poverty Eradication and Reducing Inequalities , chapter-url=https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/2/2019/05/SR15_Chapter5_High_Res.pdf , display-authors=4 , first1=J. , last1=Roy , first2=P. , last2=Tschakert , first3=H. , last3=Waisman , first4=S. , last4=Abdul Halim , first5=P. , last5=Antwi-Agyei , first6=P. , last6=Dasgupta , first7=B. , last7=Hayward , first8=M. , last8=Kanninen , first9=D. , last9=Liverman , first10=C. , last10=Okereke , first11=P. F. , last11=Pinho , first12=K. , last12=Riahi , first13=A. G. , last13=Suarez Rodriguez , title=Special Report: Global Warming of 1.5 °C , pages=445–538 Sustainable energy International development Air pollution Cooking Environmental health Sustainable development