History
The theoretical and conceptual basis for the emergy methodology is grounded inBackground
Beginning in the 1950s, Odum analyzed energy flow in ecosystems (''e.g.''In 1975, he introduced a table of "Energy Quality Factors", kilocalories of sunlight energy required to make a kilocalorie of a higher quality energy,Odum, H. T. 1976. 'Energy quality and carrying capacity of the earth. Response at Prize Ceremony, Institute de la Vie, Paris. ''Tropical Ecology'' 16(l):1–8. the first mention of theEnergy is measured by calories,btu The British thermal unit (BTU or Btu) is a unit of heat; it is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water by one degree Fahrenheit. It is also part of the United States customary units. The modern SI u ...'s, kilowatthours, and other intraconvertable units, but energy has a scale of quality which is not indicated by these measures. The ability to do work for man depends on the energy quality and quantity and this is measurable by the amount of energy of a lower quality grade required to develop the higher grade. The scale of energy goes from dilute sunlight up to plant matter, to coal, from coal to oil, to electricity and up to the high quality efforts of computer and human information processing.Odum, H. T. 1973. ''Energy, ecology and economics''. Royal Swedish Academy of Science. AMBIO 2(6):220-227.
Embodied energy
The term "Introduction of the term "emergy"
Use of the term "embodied energy" for this concept was modified in 1986 when David Scienceman, a visiting scholar at the University of Florida from Australia, suggested the term "emergy" and "emjoule" or "emcalorie" as the unit of measure to distinguish emergy units from units of available energy. The term transformation ratio was shortened toChronology
Definitions and examples
''Emergy''— amount of energy of one form that is used in transformations directly and indirectly to make a product or service. The unit of emergy is the emjoule or emergy joule. Using emergy, sunlight, fuel, electricity, and human service can be put on a common basis by expressing each of them in the emjoules of solar energy that is required to produce them. If solar emergy is the baseline, then the results are solar emjoules (abbreviated seJ). Although other baselines have been used, such as coal emjoules or electrical emjoules, in most cases emergy data are given in solar emjoules. ''Unit Emergy Values (UEVs)'' — the emergy required to generate one unit of output. Types of UEVs: :''Transformity'' — emergy input per unit of available energy output. For example, if 10,000 solar emjoules are required to generate a joule of wood, then the solar transformity of that wood is 10,000 solar emjoules per joule (abbreviated seJ/J). The solar transformity of the sunlight absorbed by the earth is 1.0 by definition. :''Specific emergy'' — emergy per unit mass output. Specific emergy is usually expressed as solar emergy per gram (seJ/g). Because energy is required to concentrate materials, the unit emergy value of any substance increases with concentration. Elements and compounds not abundant in nature therefore have higher emergy/mass ratios when found in concentrated form since more environmental work is required to concentrate them, both spatially and chemically. :''Emergy per unit money'' — the emergy supporting the generation of one unit of economic product (expressed in monetary terms)''.'' It is used to convert money into emergy units. Since money is paid for goods and services, but not to the environment, the contribution to a process represented by monetary payments is the emergy that money purchases. The amount of resources that money buys depends on the amount of emergy supporting the economy and the amount of money circulating. An average emergy/money ratio in solar emjoules/$ can be calculated by dividing the total emergy use of a state or nation by its gross economic product. It varies by country and has been shown to decrease each year, which is one index of inflation. This emergy/money ratio is useful for evaluating service inputs given in money units where an average wage rate is appropriate. :''Emergy per unit labor'' — the emergy supporting one unit of direct labor applied to a process''.'' Workers apply their efforts to a process and in so doing they indirectly invest in it the emergy that made their labor possible (food, training, transport, etc). This emergy intensity is generally expressed as emergy per time (seJ/yr; seJ/hr), but emergy per money earned (seJ/$) is also used. Indirect labor required to make and supply the inputs to a process is generally measured with the dollar cost of services, so that its emergy intensity is calculated as seJ/$. :''Empower'' — a flow of emergy (i.e., emergy per unit time)''.''Accounting method
Emergy accounting converts the thermodynamic basis of all forms of energy, resources and human services into equivalents of a single form of energy, usually solar. To evaluate a system, a system diagram organizes the evaluation and account for energy inputs and outflows. A table of the flows of resources, labor and energy is constructed from the diagram and all flows are evaluated. The final step involves interpreting the results.Purpose
In some cases, an evaluation is done to determine the fit of a development proposal within its environment. It also allows comparison of alternatives. Another purpose is to seek the best use of resources to maximize economic vitality.Systems diagram
System diagrams show the inputs that are evaluated and summed to obtain the emergy of a flow. A diagram of a city and its regional support area is shown in Figure 1.Evaluation table
A table (see example below) of resource flows, labor and energy is constructed from the diagram. Raw data on inflows that cross the boundary are converted into emergy units, and then summed to obtain total emergy supporting the system. Energy flows per unit time (usually per year) are presented in the table as separate line items. :: ;Legend * Column #1 is the line item number, which is also the number of the footnote found below the table where raw data sources are cited and calculations are shown. *Column # 2 is the name of the item, which is also shown on the aggregated diagram. *Column # 3 is the raw data in joules, grams, dollars or other units. *Column # 4 shows the units for each raw data item. *Column # 5 is the unit emergy value, expressed in solar emergy joules per unit. Sometimes, inputs are expressed in grams, hours, or dollars, therefore an appropriate UEV is used (sej/hr; sej/g; sej/$). *Column # 6 is the solar emergy of a given flow, calculated as the raw input times the UEV (Column 3 times Column 5). All tables are followed by footnotes that show citations for data and calculations.Calculating unit values
The table allows a unit emergy value to be calculated. The final, output row (row “O” in the example table above) is evaluated first in units of energy or mass. Then the input emergy is summed and the unit emergy value is calculated by dividing the emergy by the units of the output.Performance indicators
Figure 2 shows non-renewable environmental contributions (N) as an emergy storage of materials, renewable environmental inputs (R), and inputs from the economy as purchased (F) goods and services. Purchased inputs are needed for the process to take place and include human service and purchased non-renewable energy and material brought in from elsewhere (fuels, minerals, electricity, machinery, fertilizer, etc.). Several ratios, or indices are given in Figure 2 that assess the global performance of a process. * Emergy Yield Ratio (EYR) — Emergy released (used up) per unit invested. The ratio is a measure of how much an investment enables a process to exploit local resources. * Environmental Loading Ratio (ELR) — The ratio of nonrenewable and imported emergy use to renewable emergy use. It is an indicator of the pressure a transformation process exerts on the environment and can be considered a measure ofUses
The recognition of the relevance of energy to the growth and dynamics of complex systems has resulted in increased emphasis on environmental evaluation methods that can account for and interpret the effects of matter and energy flows at all scales in systems of humanity and nature. The following table lists some general areas in which the emergy methodology has been employed. ::Controversies
The concept of emergy has been controversial within academe including ecology, thermodynamics and economy. Emergy theory has been criticized for allegedly offering an energy theory of value to replace other theories of value. The stated goal of emergy evaluations is to provide an "ecocentric" valuation of systems, processes. Thus it does not purport to replace economic values but to provide additional information, from a different point of view. The idea that a calorie of sunlight is not equivalent to a calorie of fossil fuel or electricity strikes many as absurd, based on the 1st Law definition of energy units as measures of heat (i.e. Joule'sSee also
Notes
;References for Table 4 :Agostinho, F., L.A. Ambrósio, E. Ortega. 2010. Assessment of a large watershed in Brazil using Emergy Evaluation and Geographical Information System. ''Ecological Modelling'', Volume 221, Issue 8, 24 April 2010, Pages 1209-1220 :Almeida, C.M.V.B., A.J.M. Rodrigues, S.H. Bonilla, B.F. Giannetti. 2010. Emergy as a tool for Ecodesign: evaluating materials selection for beverage packages in Brazil. ''Journal of Cleaner Production'', Volume 18, Issue 1, January 2010, Pages 32-43 :Almeida, C.M.V.B., D. Borges Jr., S.H. Bonilla, B.F. Giannetti 2010. Identifying improvements in water management of bus-washing stations in Brazil Resources, Conservation and Recycling, In Press, Corrected Proof, Available online 13 February 2010 :Almeida, C.M.V.B., F.A. Barrella, B.F. Giannetti. 2007. Emergetic ternary diagrams: five examples for application in environmental accounting for decision-making. ''Journal of Cleaner Production'', Volume 15, Issue 1, 2007, Pages 63-74 :Ascione, M., L. Campanella, F. Cherubini, and S. Ulgiati. 2009. Environmental driving forces of urban growth and development: An emergy-based assessment of the city of Rome, Italy. '' Landscape and Urban Planning'', Volume 93, Issues 3-4, 15 December 2009, Pages 238-249 :Barbir, F., 1992. Analysis and Modeling of Environmental and Economic Impacts of the Solar Hydrogen Energy System. Ph.D. Dissertation, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, University of Miami, Florida, 176 pp. :Bargigli, S., M. Raugei, S. Ulgiati. 2004. Comparison of thermodynamic and environmental indexes of natural gas, syngas and hydrogen production processes. Energy, Volume 29, Issues 12-15, October–December 2004, Pages 2145-2159 :Bastianoni, S., D. Campbell, L.Susani, E. Tiezzi. 2005. The solar transformity of oil and petroleum natural gas. ''Ecological Modelling'', Volume 186, Issue 2, 15 August 2005, Pages 212-220 :Bastianoni, S., D.E. Campbell, R. Ridolfi, F.M. Pulselli. 2009. The solar transformity of petroleum fuels. ''Ecological Modelling'', Volume 220, Issue 1, 10 January 2009, Pages 40-50 :Brandt-Williams, S. 1999. Evaluation of watershed control of two Central Florida lakes : Newnans Lake and Lake Weir. PhD Dissertation, Department of Environmental Engineering Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville. 287p. :Brown M.T. and Vivas M.B., 2004. A Landscape Development Intensity Index. Env. Monitoring and Assessment, in press. :Brown M.T., and Buranakarn V., 2003. Emergy indices and ratios for sustainable material cycles and recycle options. Resources, Conservation and Recycling 38: 1-22. :Brown, M.T. , M.J. Cohen, and S. Sweeney. 2009. Predicting National Sustainability: the convergence of energetic, economic and environmental realities. Ecological Modelling 220: 3424-3438 :Brown, M.T. 2005. Landscape restoration following phosphate mining: 30 years of co-evolution of science, industry and regulation. ''Ecological Engineering'' 24: 309-329 :Brown, M.T. and Bardi, E., 2001. Emergy of Ecosystems. Folio No. 3 of Handbook of Emergy Evaluation The Center for Environmental Policy, University of Florida, Gainesville 93 p. (http://www.emergysystems.org/downloads/Folios/Folio_3.pdf). :Brown, M.T. and T. McClanahan 1996. Emergy Analysis Perspectives for Thailand and Mekong River Dam Proposals. Ecological Modelling 91:pp105-130 :Brown, M.T., 2003. Resource Imperialism. Emergy Perspectives on Sustainability, International Trade and Balancing the Welfare of Nations. In: Book of Proceedings of the International Workshop “Advances in Energy Studies. Reconsidering the Importance of Energy”. Porto Venere, Italy, 24–28 September 2002. S. Ulgiati, M.T. Brown, M. Giampietro, R.A. Herendeen, and K. Mayumi, Editors. SGE Publisher Padova, Italy, pp. 135-149. :Brown, M.T., and Ulgiati, S., 1999. Emergy Evaluation of the Biosphere and Natural Capital. '' Ambio'', 28(6): 486-493. :Brown, M.T., and Ulgiati, S., 2002. The Role of Environmental Services in Electricity Production Processes. ''Journal of Cleaner Production'', 10: 321-334. :Brown, M.T., and Ulgiati, S., 2004. Emergy, Transformity, and Ecosystem Health. In: Handbook of Ecosystem Health. Sven E. Jorgensen Editor. CRC Press, New York. :Brown, M.T., M.J. Cohen Emergy and Network Analysis. 2008. Encyclopedia of Ecology, 2008, Pages 1229-1239 :Brown, M.T., M.J. Cohen, S. Sweeney. 2009. Predicting national sustainability: The convergence of energetic, economic and environmental realities. ''Ecological Modelling'', Volume 220, Issue 23, 10 December 2009, Pages 3424-3438 :Brown, M.T., Woithe, R.D., Montague, C.L., Odum, H.T., and Odum, E.C., 1993. Emergy Analysis Perspectives of the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill in Prince William Sound, Alaska. Final Report to the Cousteau Society. Center for Wetlands, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 114 pp. :Cai, T. T., T. W Olsen, D. E Campbell. 2004. Maximum (em)power: a foundational principle linking man and nature. ''Ecological Modelling'', Volume 178, Issues 1-2, 15 October 2004, Pages 115-119 :Carraretto, C., A. Macor, A. Mirandola, A. Stoppato, S. Tonon. 2004. Biodiesel as alternative fuel: Experimental analysis and energetic evaluations. ''Energy'', Volume 29, Issues 12-15, October–December 2004, Pages 2195-2211 :Cavalett, O., E. Ortega . 2009. Emergy, nutrients balance, and economic assessment of soybean production and industrialization in Brazil. ''Journal of Cleaner Production'', Volume 17, Issue 8, May 2009, Pages 762-771 :Chen, Y., Feng, L., Wang, J., Höök, M., 2017. Emergy-based energy return on investment method for evaluating energy exploitation. Energy, Volume 128, 1 June 2017, Pages 540-549 :Cialani, C., Russi, D., and Ulgiati, S., 2004. Investigating a 20-year national economic dynamics by means of emergy-based indicators. In: Brown, M.T., Campbell, D., Comar, V., Huang, S.L., Rydberg, T., Tilley, D.R., and Ulgiati, S., (Editors), 2004. Emergy Synthesis. Theory and Applications of the Emergy Methodology – 3. Book of Proceedings of the Third International Emergy Research Conference, Gainesville, FL, 29–31 January 2004. The Center for Environmental Policy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL. :Cohen, M.J. M.T. Brown, K.D. Shepherd. 2006. Estimating the environmental costs of soil erosion at multiple scales in Kenya using emergy synthesis. ''Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment'', Volume 114, Issues 2-4, June 2006, Pages 249-269 :Cuadra, M., J. Björklund. 2007. Assessment of economic and ecological carrying capacity of agricultural crops in Nicaragua. Ecological Indicators, Volume 7, Issue 1, January 2007, Pages 133-149 :Cuadra, M., T. Rydberg. 2006. Emergy evaluation on the production, processing and export of coffee in Nicaragua. ''Ecological Modelling'', Volume 196, Issues 3-4, 25 July 2006, Pages 421-433 :de Barros, I., J.M. Blazy, G. Stachetti Rodrigues, R. Tournebize, J.P. Cinna. 2009. Emergy evaluation and economic performance of banana cropping systems in Guadeloupe (French West Indies). ''Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment'', Volume 129, Issue 4, February 2009, Pages 437-449 :Doherty, S.J., Odum, H.T., and Nilsson, P.O., 1995. Systems Analysis of the Solar Emergy Basis for Forest Alternatives in Sweden. Final Report to the Swedish State Power Board, College of Forestry, Garpenberg, Sweden, 112 pp. :Dong, X., S. Ulgiati, M. Yan, X. Zhang, W.Gao. 2008. Energy and eMergy evaluation of bioethanol production from wheat in Henan Province, China. ''Energy Policy'', Volume 36, Issue 10, October 2008, Pages 3882-3892 :Federici, M., S. Ulgiati, D. Verdesca, R. Basosi. 2003. Efficiency and sustainability indicators for passenger and commodities transportation systems: The case of Siena, Italy. Ecological Indicators, Volume 3, Issue 3, August 2003, Pages 155-169 :Federici, M., S. Ulgiati, R. Basosi. 2008. A thermodynamic, environmental and material flow analysis of the Italian highway and railway transport systems. Energy, Volume 33, Issue 5, May 2008, Pages 760-775 :Federici, M., S. Ulgiati, R. Basosi. 2009. Air versus terrestrial transport modalities: An energy and environmental comparison. Energy, Volume 34, Issue 10, October 2009, Pages 1493-1503 :Felix, E. D.R. Tilley. 2009. Integrated energy, environmental and financial analysis of ethanol production from cellulosic switchgrass. Energy, Volume 34, Issue 4, April 2009, Pages 410-436 :Franzese, P.P., T. Rydberg, G.F. Russo, S. Ulgiati. 2009. Sustainable biomass production: A comparison between Gross Energy Requirement and Emergy Synthesis methods Ecological Indicators, Volume 9, Issue 5, September 2009, Pages 959-970 :Giannantoni C., 2002. The Maximum Em-Power Principle as the Basis for Thermodynamics of Quality. SGE Publisher, Padova, Italy, pp. 185. . :Giannantoni, C., 2003. The Problem of the Initial Conditions and Their Physical Meaning in Linear Differential Equations of Fractional Order. ''Applied Mathematics and Computation'' 141, 87–102. :Giannetti, B.F., C.M.V.B. Almeida, S.H. Bonilla. 2010. Comparing emergy accounting with well-known sustainability metrics: The case of Southern Cone Common Market, Mercosur. ''Energy Policy'', Volume 38, Issue 7, July 2010, Pages 3518-3526 :Giannetti, B.F., F.A. Barrella, C.M.V.B. Almeida. 2006. A combined tool for environmental scientists and decision makers: ternary diagrams and emergy accounting. '' Journal of Cleaner Production'', Volume 14, Issue 2, 2006, Pages 201-210 :Grönlund, E., A. Klang, S. Falk, J. Hanæus. 2004. Sustainability of wastewater treatment with microalgae in cold climate, evaluated with emergy and socio-ecological principles. ''Ecological Engineering'', Volume 22, Issue 3, 1 May 2004, Pages 155-174 :Huang, S-L., C-W. Chen. 2005. Theory of urban energetics and mechanisms of urban development. ''Ecological Modelling'', Volume 189, Issues 1-2, 25 November 2005, Pages 49-71 :Huang, S-L., C-L. Lee, C-W. Chen. 2006. Socioeconomic metabolism in Taiwan: Emergy synthesis versus material flow analysis. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, Volume 48, Issue 2, 15 August 2006, Pages 166-196 :Huang, S.L., 1998. Spatial Hierarchy of Urban Energetic Systems. In: Book of Proceedings of the International Workshop “Advances in Energy Studies. Energy Flows in Ecology and Economy”. Porto Venere, Italy, 26–30 May 1998. S. Ulgiati, M.T. Brown, M. Giampietro, R.A. Herendeen, and K. Mayumi (Eds), MUSIS Publisher, Roma, Italy, pp. 499-514. :Ingwersen, W.W. 2010. Uncertainty characterization for emergy values. ''Ecological Modelling'', Volume 221, Issue 3, 10 February 2010, Pages 445-452 :Jiang, M.M., J.B. Zhou, B. Chen, G.Q. Chen. 2008. Emergy-based ecological account for the Chinese economy in 2004. ''Communications in Nonlinear Science and Numerical Simulation'', Volume 13, Issue 10, December 2008, Pages 2337-2356 :Jorgensen, S. E., H. T. Odum, M. T. Brown. 2004. Emergy and exergy stored in genetic information. ''Ecological Modelling'', Volume 178, Issues 1-2, 15 October 2004, Pages 11-16 :Kangas, P.C., 2002. Emergy of Landforms. Folio No. 5 of Handbook of Emergy Evaluation. The Center for Environmental Policy, University of Florida, Gainesville 93 p. (http://www.emergysystems.org/downloads/Folios/Folio_5.pdf) :Keitt, T.H., 1991. Hierarchical Organization of energy and information in a tropical rain forest ecosystem. M.S. Thesis, Environmental Engineering Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, 72 pp. :Kent, R., H.T. Odum and F.N. Scatena. 2000. Eutrophic overgrowth in the self organization of tropical wetlands illustrated with a study of swine wastes in rainforest plots. Ecol. Engr. 16(2000):255-269. :Laganis, J., M. Debeljak. 2006. Sensitivity analysis of the emergy flows at the solar salt production process in Slovenia. ''Ecological Modelling'', Volume 194, Issues 1-3, 25 March 2006, Pages 287-295 :Lefroy, E., T. Rydberg. 2003. Emergy evaluation of three cropping systems in southwestern Australia. ''Ecological Modelling'', Volume 161, Issue 3, 15 March 2003, Pages 193-209 :Lei, K., Z. Wang. 2008a. Emergy synthesis of tourism-based urban ecosystem. ''Journal of Environmental Management'', Volume 88, Issue 4, September 2008, Pages 831-844 :Lei K., Z. Wang. 2008b. Emergy Synthesis and Simulation of Macao. ''Energy'', Volume 33, Issue 4, pages 613-625 :Lei K., Z. Wang. 2008c. Municipal Wastes and Their Solar Transformities: Emergy Synthesis for Macao. ''Waste management'', Volume 28, Issue 12, pages 2522-2531 :Lei K., Z. Wang, S.Tong. 2008. Holistic Emergy Analysis of Macao. ''Ecological Engineering'', Volume 32, Issue 1, pages 30-43 :Lei K., S. Zhou, D. Hu, Z. Wang. 2010. Ecological energy accounting for the gambling sector: A case study in Macao. ''Ecological complexity'', Volume 7, pages 149-155 :Lei K., S. Zhou, D. Hu, Z. Guo, A. Cao. 2011. Emergy analysis for tourism systems: Principles and a case study for Macao. ''Ecological complexity'', Volume 8, 192-200 :Lei K., S. Zhou. 2012. Per capita Resource Consumption and Resource Carrying Capacity: a Comparison of the Sustainability of 17 Mainstream Countries. ''Energy Policy'', Volume 42, pages 603-612 :Liu G.Y. et al., 2017. https://www.emergy-nead.com and http://nead.um01.cn/home. :Lomas, P.L., S. Álvarez, M. Rodríguez, C. Montes. 2008. Environmental accounting as a management tool in the Mediterranean context: The Spanish economy during the last 20 years. ''Journal of Environmental Management'', Volume 88, Issue 2, July 2008, Pages 326-347 :Lu, H-F., W-L.Kang, D.E. Campbell, H. Ren, Y-W. Tan, R-X. Feng, J-T. Luo, F-P. Chen. 2009. Emergy and economic evaluations of four fruit production systems on reclaimed wetlands surrounding the Pearl River Estuary, China. ''Ecological Engineering'', Volume 35, Issue 12, December 2009, Pages 1743-1757 :Lu, H. D.E. Campbell, Z. Li, H. Ren. 2006.Emergy synthesis of an agro-forest restoration system in lower subtropical China. ''Ecological Engineering'', Volume 27, Issue 3, 2 October 2006, Pages 175-192 :Lu, H., D. Campbell, J. Chen, P. Qin, H. Ren . 2007. Conservation and economic viability of nature reserves: An emergy evaluation of the Yancheng Biosphere Reserve. ''Biological Conservation'', Volume 139, Issues 3-4, October 2007, Pages 415-438 :Lu, H., D. E. Campbell. 2009. Ecological and economic dynamics of the Shunde agricultural system under China's small city development strategy. ''Journal of Environmental Management'', Volume 90, Issue 8, June 2009, Pages 2589-2600 :Martin, J.F., S.A.W. Diemont, E. Powell, M. Stanton, S. Levy-Tacher. 2006. Emergy evaluation of the performance and sustainability of three agricultural systems with different scales and management. ''Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment'', Volume 115, Issues 1-4, July 2006, Pages 128-140 :Odum H.T. and E.C. Odum , 2001. A Prosperous Way Down: Principles and Policies. University Press of Colorado. :Odum H.T. and Pinkerton R.C., 1955. Time's speed regulator: the optimum efficiency for maximum power output in physical and biological systems. American Scientist, 43: 331-343. :Odum H.T., 1983. Maximum power and efficiency: a rebuttal. ''Ecological Modelling'', 20: 71-82. :Odum H.T., 1988. Self organization, transformity and information. Science, 242: 1132-1139. :Odum H.T., 1996. Environmental Accounting. Emergy and Environmental Decision Making. John Wiley & Sons, N.Y. :Odum, E.C., and Odum, H.T., 1980. Energy systems and environmental education. Pp. 213-231 in: ''Environmental :Education- Principles, Methods and Applications'', Ed. by T.S. Bakshi and Z. Naveh.External links