The Middle Kingdom of Egypt (also known as The Period of Reunification) is the period in the history of
ancient Egypt following a period of political division known as the
First Intermediate Period. The Middle Kingdom lasted from approximately 2040 to 1782 BC, stretching from the reunification of Egypt under the reign of
Mentuhotep II
Mentuhotep II ( egy, Mn- ṯw- ḥtp, meaning " Mentu is satisfied"), also known under his prenomen Nebhepetre ( egy, Nb- ḥpt- Rˁ, meaning "The Lord of the rudder is Ra"), was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh, the sixth ruler of the Eleventh D ...
in the
Eleventh Dynasty
The Eleventh Dynasty of ancient Egypt (notated Dynasty XI) is a well-attested group of rulers. Its earlier members before Pharaoh Mentuhotep II are grouped with the four preceding dynasties to form the First Intermediate Period, whereas the lat ...
to the end of the
Twelfth Dynasty
The Twelfth Dynasty of ancient Egypt (Dynasty XII) is considered to be the apex of the Middle Kingdom by Egyptologists. It often is combined with the Eleventh, Thirteenth, and Fourteenth dynasties under the group title, Middle Kingdom. Some ...
. The kings of the Eleventh Dynasty ruled from
Thebes and the kings of the Twelfth Dynasty ruled from
el-Lisht
Lisht or el-Lisht ( ar, اللشت, translit=Al-Lišt) is an Egyptian village located south of Cairo. It is the site of Middle Kingdom royal and elite burials, including two pyramids built by Amenemhat I and Senusret I. The two main pyramids were ...
.
The
concept of the Middle Kingdom as one of three golden ages was coined in 1845 by German Egyptologist
Baron von Bunsen, and its definition evolved significantly throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. Some scholars also include the
Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt
In music or music theory, a thirteenth is the note thirteen scale degrees from the root of a chord and also the interval between the root and the thirteenth. The interval can be also described as a compound sixth, spanning an octave ...
wholly into this period, in which case the Middle Kingdom would end around 1650 BC, while others only include it until
Merneferre Ay
Merneferre Ay (also spelled Aya or Eje, sometimes known as Ay I) was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the mid 13th Dynasty. The longest reigning pharaoh of the 13th Dynasty, he ruled a likely fragmented Egypt for over 23 years in the early to mi ...
around 1700 BC, last king of this dynasty to be attested in both Upper and Lower Egypt. During the Middle Kingdom period,
Osiris
Osiris (, from Egyptian ''wsjr'', cop, ⲟⲩⲥⲓⲣⲉ , ; Phoenician: 𐤀𐤎𐤓, romanized: ʾsr) is the god of fertility, agriculture, the afterlife, the dead, resurrection, life, and vegetation in ancient Egyptian religion. He wa ...
became the most important deity in
popular religion
In religious studies and folkloristics, folk religion, popular religion, traditional religion or vernacular religion comprises various forms and expressions of religion that are distinct from the official doctrines and practices of organized re ...
. The Middle Kingdom was followed by the
Second Intermediate Period of Egypt, another period of division that involved foreign rule of Lower Egypt by the
Hyksos
Hyksos (; Egyptian '' ḥqꜣ(w)- ḫꜣswt'', Egyptological pronunciation: ''hekau khasut'', "ruler(s) of foreign lands") is a term which, in modern Egyptology, designates the kings of the Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt (fl. c. 1650–1550 BC).
T ...
of West Asia.
Political history
Periods of ancient Egypt
Reunification under the Eleventh Dynasty
![Mentuhotep Seated edit](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Mentuhotep_Seated_edit.jpg)
After the collapse of the
Old Kingdom
In ancient Egyptian history, the Old Kingdom is the period spanning c. 2700–2200 BC. It is also known as the "Age of the Pyramids" or the "Age of the Pyramid Builders", as it encompasses the reigns of the great pyramid-builders of the Fourth ...
, Egypt entered a period of weak pharaonic power and decentralization called the
First Intermediate Period.
[ Grimal. (1988) p. 156] Towards the end of this period, two rival dynasties, known in Egyptology as the Tenth and Eleventh, fought for control of the entire country. The Theban Eleventh Dynasty only ruled southern Egypt from the
First Cataract
The Cataracts of the Nile are shallow lengths (or whitewater rapids) of the Nile river, between Khartoum and Aswan, where the surface of the water is broken by many small boulders and stones jutting out of the river bed, as well as many rocky ...
to the Tenth Nome of Upper Egypt. To the north, Lower Egypt was ruled by the rival
Tenth Dynasty from
Herakleopolis
Heracleopolis Magna ( grc-gre, Μεγάλη Ἡρακλέους πόλις, ''Megálē Herakléous pólis'') and Heracleopolis (, ''Herakleópolis'') and Herakleoupolis (), is the Roman name of the capital of the 20th nome of ancient Upper Eg ...
.
[ Grimal. (1988) p. 155] The struggle was to be concluded by
Mentuhotep II
Mentuhotep II ( egy, Mn- ṯw- ḥtp, meaning " Mentu is satisfied"), also known under his prenomen Nebhepetre ( egy, Nb- ḥpt- Rˁ, meaning "The Lord of the rudder is Ra"), was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh, the sixth ruler of the Eleventh D ...
, who ascended the Theban throne in 2055 BC.
[ Shaw. (2000) p. 149] During Mentuhotep II's fourteenth regnal year, he took advantage of a revolt in the Thinite Nome to launch an attack on Herakleopolis, which met little resistance.
After toppling the last rulers of the Tenth Dynasty, Mentuhotep began consolidating his power over all of Egypt, a process which he finished by his 39th regnal year.
For this reason, Mentuhotep II is regarded as the founder of the Middle Kingdom.
[ Habachi. (1963) pp. 16–52]
Mentuhotep II commanded petty campaigns south as far as the Second Cataract in
Nubia
Nubia () (Nobiin: Nobīn, ) is a region along the Nile river encompassing the area between the first cataract of the Nile (just south of Aswan in southern Egypt) and the confluence of the Blue and White Niles (in Khartoum in central Sudan), or ...
, which had gained its independence during the
First Intermediate Period. He also restored Egyptian hegemony over the Sinai region, which had been lost to Egypt since the end of the Old Kingdom.
[ Grimal. (1988) p. 157] To consolidate his authority, he restored the cult of the ruler, depicting himself as a god in his own lifetime, wearing the headdresses of
Amun and
Min
Min or MIN may refer to:
Places
* Fujian, also called Mǐn, a province of China
** Min Kingdom (909–945), a state in Fujian
* Min County, a county of Dingxi, Gansu province, China
* Min River (Fujian)
* Min River (Sichuan)
* Mineola (Am ...
.
[ Shaw. (2000) p. 151] He died after a reign of 51 years and passed the throne to his son,
Mentuhotep III
Sankhkare Mentuhotep III (also Montuhotep III) of the Eleventh Dynasty was Pharaoh of Egypt during the Middle Kingdom. He was assigned a reign of 12 years in the Turin Canon.
Reign
Mentuhotep III succeeded his father Mentuhotep II to t ...
.
Mentuhotep III reigned for only twelve years, during which he continued consolidating Theban rule over the whole of Egypt, building a series of forts in the eastern Delta region to secure Egypt against threats from Asia.
He also sent the first expedition to Punt during the Middle Kingdom, using ships constructed at the end of Wadi Hammamat, on the Red Sea.
[ Shaw. (2000) p. 156] Mentuhotep III was succeeded by
Mentuhotep IV
Nebtawyre Mentuhotep IV was the last king of the 11th Dynasty in the Middle Kingdom. He seems to fit into a 7-year period in the Turin Canon for which there is no recorded king.
Family King's Mother Imi
In Wadi Hammamat, a rock inscription (Ham ...
, whose name, significantly, is omitted from all ancient Egyptian king lists.
[ Redford. (1992) p. 71.] The
Turin Papyrus claims that after Mentuhotep III came "seven kingless years".
[ Gardiner. (1964) p. 124.] Despite this absence, his reign is attested from a few inscriptions in
Wadi Hammamat
Wadi Hammamat ( en, Valley of Many Baths, ''India way; gateway to India'') is a dry river bed in Egypt's Eastern Desert, about halfway between Al-Qusayr and Qena. It was a major mining region and trade route east from the Nile Valley in ancie ...
that record expeditions to the
Red Sea
The Red Sea ( ar, البحر الأحمر - بحر القلزم, translit=Modern: al-Baḥr al-ʾAḥmar, Medieval: Baḥr al-Qulzum; or ; Coptic: ⲫⲓⲟⲙ ⲛ̀ϩⲁϩ ''Phiom Enhah'' or ⲫⲓⲟⲙ ⲛ̀ϣⲁⲣⲓ ''Phiom ǹšari''; ...
coast and to quarry stone for the royal monuments.
The leader of this expedition was his vizier Amenemhat, who is widely assumed to be the future pharaoh
Amenemhet I
:''See Amenemhat, for other individuals with this name.''
Amenemhat I ( Ancient Egyptian: ''Ỉmn-m-hꜣt'' meaning 'Amun is at the forefront'), also known as Amenemhet I, was a pharaoh of ancient Egypt and the first king of the Twelfth Dynast ...
, the first king of the
Twelfth Dynasty
The Twelfth Dynasty of ancient Egypt (Dynasty XII) is considered to be the apex of the Middle Kingdom by Egyptologists. It often is combined with the Eleventh, Thirteenth, and Fourteenth dynasties under the group title, Middle Kingdom. Some ...
.
[ Redford. (1992) p. 72.][ Gardiner. (1964) p. 125.]
Mentuhotep IV's absence from the king lists has prompted the theory that Amenemhet I usurped his throne.
While there are no contemporary accounts of this struggle, certain circumstantial evidence may point to the existence of a civil war at the end of the 11th Dynasty.
Inscriptions left by one Nehry, the
Haty-a
Ḥaty-a was an ancient Egyptian rank and title given to local princes, mayors, or governors.
There is no standard translation for Ḥaty-a, and it is frequently left transliterated in scholarly literature.
In strings of ranking titles ''Ḥa ...
of
Hermopolis
Hermopolis ( grc, Ἑρμούπολις ''Hermoúpolis'' "the City of Hermes", also ''Hermopolis Magna'', ''Hermoû pólis megálẽ'', egy, ḫmnw , Egyptological pronunciation: "Khemenu"; cop, Ϣⲙⲟⲩⲛ ''Shmun''; ar, الأشموني ...
, suggest that he was attacked at a place called Shedyet-sha by the forces of the reigning king, but his forces prevailed.
Khnumhotep I
Khnumhotep I (''ẖnmw-ḥtp, "Khnum is pleased"'') was an ancient Egyptian '' Great Chief of the Oryx nome'' (the 16th nome of Upper Egypt) during the reign of Pharaoh Amenemhat I of the 12th Dynasty, Middle Kingdom (early 20th century BCE).
T ...
, an official under Amenemhet I, claims to have participated in a flotilla of twenty ships sent to pacify Upper Egypt.
Donald Redford
Donald Bruce Redford (born September 2, 1934) is a Canadian Egyptologist and archaeologist, currently Professor of Classics and Ancient Mediterranean Studies at Pennsylvania State University. He is married to Susan Redford, who is also an Egypto ...
has suggested these events should be interpreted as evidence of open war between two dynastic claimants.
[ Redford. (1992) p.74] What is certain is that, however he came to power, Amenemhet I was not of royal birth.
Twelfth Dynasty
Early Twelfth Dynasty
![GuardianStatueofAmenemhmatII](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/GuardianStatueofAmenemhmatII.jpg)
From the Twelfth Dynasty onwards, pharaohs often kept well-trained standing armies, which included
Nubian
Nubian may refer to:
*Something of, from, or related to Nubia, a region along the Nile river in Southern Egypt and northern Sudan.
*Nubian people
*Nubian languages
*Anglo-Nubian goat, a breed of goat
* Nubian ibex
* , several ships of the Britis ...
contingents. These formed the basis of larger forces that were raised for defense against invasion, or expeditions up the Nile or across the Sinai. However, the Middle Kingdom was basically defensive in its military strategy, with fortifications built at the
First Cataract
The Cataracts of the Nile are shallow lengths (or whitewater rapids) of the Nile river, between Khartoum and Aswan, where the surface of the water is broken by many small boulders and stones jutting out of the river bed, as well as many rocky ...
of the Nile, in the Delta and across the Sinai Isthmus.
Early in his reign, Amenemhet I was compelled to campaign in the Delta region, which had not received as much attention as Upper Egypt during the 11th Dynasty.
[ Arnold. (1991) p. 20.] Also, he strengthened defenses between Egypt and Asia, building the Walls of the Ruler in the East Delta region.
[ Shaw. (2000) p. 148] Perhaps in response to this perpetual unrest, Amenemhat I built a new capital for Egypt in the north, known as
Amenemhet It Tawy, or ''Amenemhet, Seizer of the Two Lands''.
[ Arnold. (1991) p. 14.] The location of this capital is unknown, but is presumably near the city's necropolis, the present-day
el-Lisht
Lisht or el-Lisht ( ar, اللشت, translit=Al-Lišt) is an Egyptian village located south of Cairo. It is the site of Middle Kingdom royal and elite burials, including two pyramids built by Amenemhat I and Senusret I. The two main pyramids were ...
.
[ Shaw. (2000) p. 158] Like Mentuhotep II, Amenemhet bolstered his claim to authority with propaganda.
[ Grimal. (1988) p. 159] In particular, the
Prophecy of Neferty
The ''Prophecy of Neferti'' is one of the few surviving literary texts from ancient Egypt. The story is set in the Old Kingdom, under the reign of King Snefru. However, the text should be attributed to an individual named Neferyt, who most likely c ...
dates to about this time, which purports to be an oracle of an Old Kingdom priest, who predicts a king, Amenemhet I, arising from the far south of Egypt to restore the kingdom after centuries of chaos.
Propaganda notwithstanding, Amenemhet never held the absolute power commanded in theory by the Old Kingdom pharaohs. During the First Intermediate Period, the governors of the
nomes of Egypt,
nomarch
A nomarch ( grc, νομάρχης, egy, ḥrj tp ꜥꜣ Great Chief) was a provincial governor in ancient Egypt; the country was divided into 42 provinces, called nomes (singular , plural ). A nomarch was the government official responsib ...
s, gained considerable power. Their posts had become hereditary, and some nomarchs entered into marriage alliances with the nomarchs of neighboring nomes.
[ Gardiner. (1964) p. 128.] To strengthen his position, Amenemhet required registration of land, modified nome borders, and appointed nomarchs directly when offices became vacant, but acquiesced to the nomarch system, probably to placate the nomarchs who supported his rule.
[ Grimal. (1988) p. 160] This gave the Middle Kingdom a more feudal organization than Egypt had before or would have afterward.
[ Gardiner. (1964) p. 129.]
In his twentieth regnal year, Amenemhat established his son
Senusret I
Senusret I (Middle Egyptian: z-n-wsrt; /suʀ nij ˈwas.ɾiʔ/) also anglicized as Sesostris I and Senwosret I, was the second pharaoh of the Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt. He ruled from 1971 BC to 1926 BC (1920 BC to 1875 BC), and was one of the mo ...
as his coregent,
beginning a practice which would be used repeatedly throughout the rest of the Middle Kingdom and again during the New Kingdom. In Amenemhet's thirtieth regnal year, he was presumably murdered in a palace conspiracy. Senusret, campaigning against Libyan invaders, rushed home to Itjtawy to prevent a takeover of the government.
[ Shaw. (2000) p. 160] During his reign, Senusret continued the practice of directly appointing nomarchs,
[ Shaw. (2000) p. 175] and undercut the autonomy of local priesthoods by building at cult centers throughout Egypt.
[ Shaw. (2000) p. 162] Under his rule, Egyptian armies pushed south into Nubia as far as the Second Cataract, building a border fort at
Buhen
Buhen ( grc, Βοὥν ''Bohón'') was an ancient Egyptian settlement situated on the West bank of the Nile below (to the North of) the Second Cataract in what is now Northern State, Sudan.
It is now submerged in Lake Nasser, Sudan; as a resu ...
and incorporating all of
Lower Nubia
Lower Nubia is the northernmost part of Nubia, roughly contiguous with the modern Lake Nasser, which submerged the historical region in the 1960s with the construction of the Aswan High Dam. Many ancient Lower Nubian monuments, and all its modern p ...
as an Egyptian colony.
[ Shaw. (2000) p. 161] Senusret I also exercised control over the land of Kush, from the Second to the Third Cataract, including the island of Sai. The southernmost inscription containing Sesostris I’s name has been found on the island of Argo, north of modern Dongola. To the west, he consolidated his power over the Oases, and extended commercial contacts into Syria-Palestine as far as
Ugarit
)
, image =Ugarit Corbel.jpg
, image_size=300
, alt =
, caption = Entrance to the Royal Palace of Ugarit
, map_type = Near East#Syria
, map_alt =
, map_size = 300
, relief=yes
, location = Latakia Governorate, Syria
, region = ...
.
[ Grimal. (1988) p. 165] In his 43rd regnal year, Senusret appointed
Amenemhet II as junior coregent, before dying in his 46th.
[ Murnane. (1977) p. 5.]
The reign of
Amenemhat II has been often characterized as largely peaceful,
but records of his , or daybooks, have cast doubt on that assessment.
[ Shaw. (2000) p. 163] Among these records, preserved on temple walls at Tod and Memphis, are descriptions of peace treaties with certain Syrio-Palestinian cities, and military conflict with others.
To the south, Amenemhet sent a campaign through lower Nubia to inspect
Wawat.
It does not appear that Amenemhet continued his predecessors' policy of appointing nomarchs, but let it become hereditary again.
Another expedition to Punt dates to his reign.
In his 33rd regnal year, he appointed his son
Senusret II
Khakheperre Senusret II was the fourth pharaoh of the Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt. He ruled from 1897 BC to 1878 BC. His pyramid was constructed at El-Lahun. Senusret II took a great deal of interest in the Faiyum oasis region and began work on an ...
coregent.
[ Murnane. (1977) p. 7.]
Evidence for the military activity of any kind during the reign of Senusret II is non-existent. Senusret instead appears to have focused on domestic issues, particularly the irrigation of the
Faiyum
Faiyum ( ar, الفيوم ' , borrowed from cop, ̀Ⲫⲓⲟⲙ or Ⲫⲓⲱⲙ ' from egy, pꜣ ym "the Sea, Lake") is a city in Middle Egypt. Located southwest of Cairo, in the Faiyum Oasis, it is the capital of the modern Faiyum ...
. This multi-generational project aimed to convert the Faiyum oasis into a productive swath of farmland.
[ Shaw. (2000) p. 164] Senusret eventually placed his pyramid at the site of
el-Lahun, near the junction of the Nile and the Fayuum's major irrigation canal, the
Bahr Yussef
The Bahr Yussef ( ar, بحر يوسف; "the waterway of Joseph") is a canal which connects the Nile River with Fayyum in Egypt.
In ancient times it was called Tomis () by the Greeks which was derived from its Egyptian name ''Tm.t'' "ending cana ...
.
[ Gardiner. (1964) p. 138.] He reigned only fifteen years,
[ Grimal. (1988) p. 166] which explains the incomplete nature of many of his constructions.
His son
Senusret III succeeded him.
Height of the Middle Kingdom
Senusret III was a warrior-king, often taking to the field himself. In his sixth year, he re-dredged an Old Kingdom canal around the First Cataract to facilitate travel to
Upper Nubia Upper Nubia is the southernmost part of Nubia, upstream on the Nile from Lower Nubia. It is so called because the Nile flows north, so it is further upstream and of higher elevation in relation to Lower Nubia.
The extension of ''Upper Nubia'' is ra ...
. He used this to launch a series of brutal campaigns in Nubia in his sixth, eighth, tenth, and sixteenth years. After his victories, Senusret built a series of massive forts throughout the country to establish the formal boundary between Egyptian conquests and unconquered Nubia at
Semna
The region of Semna is 15 miles south of Wadi Halfa and is situated where rocks cross the Nile narrowing its flow—the Semna Cataract.
Semna was a fortified area established in the reign of Senusret I (1965–1920 BC) on the west bank of the N ...
.
[ Shaw. (2000) p. 166] The personnel of these forts were charged to send frequent reports to the capital on the movements and activities of the local
Medjay
Medjay (also ''Medjai'', ''Mazoi'', ''Madjai'', ''Mejay'', Egyptian ''mḏꜣ.j'', a nisba of ''mḏꜣ'',) was a demonym used in various ways throughout ancient Egyptian history to refer initially to a nomadic group from Nubia and later as a ge ...
natives, some of which survive, revealing how tightly the Egyptians intended to control the southern border.
[ Gardiner. (1964) p. 136.] Medjay were not allowed north of the border by ship, nor could they enter by land with their flocks, but they were permitted to travel to local forts to trade.
[ Gardiner. (1964) p. 135.] After this, Senusret sent one more campaign in his 19th year, but turned back due to abnormally low Nile levels, which endangered his ships.
To the north, One of Senusret's soldiers records a campaign into Palestine, perhaps against
Shechem
Shechem ( ), also spelled Sichem ( ; he, שְׁכֶם, ''Šəḵem''; ; grc, Συχέμ, Sykhém; Samaritan Hebrew: , ), was a Canaanite and Israelite city mentioned in the Amarna Letters, later appearing in the Hebrew Bible as the first c ...
, the only reference to a military campaign against a certain location in Palestine from Middle Kingdom literature,
[ Redford. (1992) p. 76] although there are other references to action against Asiatics. It is not known whether Egypt wished to control Canaan like Northern Nubia, but numerous administrative seals of the period have been found there, as well as other indications of increased activity Northward in this period. As in the old kingdom, the contact was particularly strong with
Byblos
Byblos ( ; gr, Βύβλος), also known as Jbeil or Jubayl ( ar, جُبَيْل, Jubayl, locally ; phn, 𐤂𐤁𐤋, , probably ), is a city in the Keserwan-Jbeil Governorate of Lebanon. It is believed to have been first occupied between 8 ...
, known for its valuable wood.
![Indus carnelian bead UC30334 Egypt Middle Kingdom London, Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Indus_carnelian_bead_UC30334_Egypt_Middle_Kingdom_London%2C_Petrie_Museum_of_Egyptian_Archaeology.jpg)
Domestically, Senusret has been given credit for an administrative reform which put more power in the hands of appointees of the central government, instead of regional authorities.
Egypt was divided into three ''water'', or administrative divisions: North, South, and Head of the South (perhaps
Lower Egypt, most of
Upper Egypt
Upper Egypt ( ar, صعيد مصر ', shortened to , , locally: ; ) is the southern portion of Egypt and is composed of the lands on both sides of the Nile that extend upriver from Lower Egypt in the north to Nubia in the south.
In ancient E ...
, and the nomes of the original Theban kingdom during the war with
Herakleopolis
Heracleopolis Magna ( grc-gre, Μεγάλη Ἡρακλέους πόλις, ''Megálē Herakléous pólis'') and Heracleopolis (, ''Herakleópolis'') and Herakleoupolis (), is the Roman name of the capital of the 20th nome of ancient Upper Eg ...
, respectively). Each region was administrated by a ''Reporter'', ''Second Reporter'', some kind of council (the ''Djadjat''), and staff of minor officials and scribes.
[ Hayes. (1953) p. 32] The power of the nomarchs seems to drop off permanently during his reign, which has been taken to indicate that the central government had finally suppressed them, though there is no record that Senusret ever took direct action against them.
Senusret III left a lasting legacy as a warrior pharaoh. His name was Hellenized by later Greek historians as Sesostris, a name which was then given to a conflation of Senusret and several New Kingdom warrior pharaohs.
[ Shaw and Nicholson. (1995) p. 260] In Nubia, Senusret was worshiped as a patron God by Egyptian settlers.
[ Aldred. (1987) p.129] The duration of his reign remains something of an open question. His son
Amenemhet III began reigning after Senusret's 19th regnal year, which has been widely considered Senusret's highest attested date.
[ Wegner. (1996) p. 250] However, a reference to a year 39 on a fragment found in the construction debris of Senusret's mortuary temple has suggested the possibility of a long coregency with his son.
[ Wegner. (1996) p. 260]
The reign of
Amenemhat III was the height of the Middle Kingdom's economic prosperity. His reign is remarkable for the degree to which Egypt exploited its resources. Mining camps in the Sinai, which had previously been used only by intermittent expeditions, were operated on a semi-permanent basis, as evidenced by the construction of houses, walls, and even local cemeteries.
[ Grimal. (1988) p. 170] There are 25 separate references to mining expeditions in the Sinai, and four to expeditions in Wadi Hammamat, one of which had over two thousand workers.
[ Grajetzki. (2006) p. 60] Amenemhet reinforced his father's defenses in Nubia
[ Shaw. (2000) p. 168] and continued the Faiyum land reclamation project.
[ Shaw. (2000) p. 169]
After a reign of 45 years, Amenemhet III was succeeded by
Amenemhet IV,
whose nine-year reign is poorly attested.
[ Shaw. (2000) p. 170] Clearly by this time, dynastic power had begun to weaken, for which several explanations have been proposed. Contemporary records of the Nile flood levels indicate that the end of the reign of Amenemhet III was dry, and crop failures may have helped to destabilize the dynasty.
Further, Amenemhet III had an inordinately long reign, which tends to create succession problems.
[ Grimal. (1988) p. 171] The latter argument perhaps explains why Amenemhet IV was succeeded by
Sobekneferu
, image = File:Statue of Sobekneferu (Berlin Egyptian Museum 14475).jpg
, image_alt = Partially defaced bust of a female
, caption = Statue of Sobekneferu
, reign = 3 years, 10 months, and 24 days according to the Turin Canon in the mid 18th ...
, the first historically attested female king of Egypt.
Sobekneferu ruled no more than four years,
[ Shaw. (2000) p. 171] and as she apparently had no heirs, when she died the Twelfth Dynasty came to a sudden end as did the Golden Age of the Middle Kingdom.
Decline into the Second Intermediate Period
![KneelingStatueOfSobekhotepV-AltesMuseum-Berlin](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0e/KneelingStatueOfSobekhotepV-AltesMuseum-Berlin.png)
After the death of Sobeknefru, the throne may have passed to
Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep
Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep (appears in most sources as Amenemhat Sobekhotep; now believed to be Sobekhotep I; known as Sobekhotep II in older studies) was an Egyptian pharaoh of the 13th Dynasty during the Second Intermediate Period, who reigned ...
, though in older studies
Wegaf
Khutawyre Wegaf (or Ugaf) was a pharaoh of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt, who is known from several sources, including a stele and statues. There is a general known from a scarab with the same name, who is perhaps identical with this king.
Atte ...
, who had previously been the Great Overseer of Troops,
[ Grajetzki. (2006) p. 66] was thought to have reigned next.
[ Grimal. (1988) p. 183] Beginning with this reign, Egypt was ruled by a series of ephemeral kings for about ten to fifteen years.
[ Grajetzki. (2006) p. 64] Ancient Egyptian sources regard these as the first kings of the
Thirteenth Dynasty
In music or music theory, a thirteenth is the Musical note, note thirteen scale degrees from the root (chord), root of a chord (music), chord and also the interval (music), interval between the root and the thirteenth. The interval can be ...
, though the term dynasty is misleading, as most kings of the Thirteenth Dynasty were not related.
[ Grajetzki. (2006) p. 65] The names of these short-lived kings are attested on a few monuments and
graffiti
Graffiti (plural; singular ''graffiti'' or ''graffito'', the latter rarely used except in archeology) is art that is written, painted or drawn on a wall or other surface, usually without permission and within public view. Graffiti ranges from s ...
, and their succession order is only known from the
Turin Canon The Turin King List, also known as the Turin Royal Canon, is an ancient Egyptian hieratic papyrus thought to date from the reign of Pharaoh Ramesses II, now in the Museo Egizio (Egyptian Museum) in Turin. The papyrus is the most extensive list av ...
, although even this is not fully trusted.
After the initial dynastic chaos, a series of longer reigning, better-attested kings ruled for about fifty to eighty years.
The strongest king of this period,
Neferhotep I
Khasekhemre Neferhotep I was an Egyptian pharaoh of the mid Thirteenth Dynasty ruling in the second half of the 18th century BC K.S.B. Ryholt: ''The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800–1550 BC'', Carst ...
, ruled for eleven years and maintained effective control of Upper Egypt, Nubia, and the Delta,
[ Grajetzki. (2006) p. 71] with the possible exceptions of
Xois
Sakha, also known by the ancient name of Xois ( ar, سخا, grc-koi, Ξόις, cop, ⲥϦⲱⲟⲩ Strabo xvii. p, 802; Ptolemy iv. 5. § 50; , Stephanus of Byzantium ''s. v.'') is a town in Kafr El Sheikh Governorate of Egypt. Located near th ...
and
Avaris.
[ Shaw. (2000) p. 172] Neferhotep I was even recognized as the suzerain of the ruler of Byblos, indicating that the Thirteenth Dynasty was able to retain much of the power of the Twelfth Dynasty, at least up to his reign.
At some point during the 13th Dynasty, Xois and Avaris began governing themselves,
the rulers of Xois being the Fourteenth Dynasty, and the Asiatic rulers of Avaris being the
Hyksos
Hyksos (; Egyptian '' ḥqꜣ(w)- ḫꜣswt'', Egyptological pronunciation: ''hekau khasut'', "ruler(s) of foreign lands") is a term which, in modern Egyptology, designates the kings of the Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt (fl. c. 1650–1550 BC).
T ...
of the Fifteenth Dynasty. According to
Manetho, this latter revolt occurred during the reign of Neferhotep's successor,
Sobekhotep IV
Khaneferre Sobekhotep IV was one of the more powerful Egyptian kings of the 13th Dynasty (c. 1803 BC to c. 1649 BC), who reigned at least eight years. His brothers, Neferhotep I and Sihathor, were his predecessors on the throne, the latter having ...
, though there is no archaeological evidence.
[ Grajetzki. (2006) p. 72] Sobekhotep IV was succeeded by the short reign of
Sobekhotep V
Merhotepre Sobekhotep (also known as Sobekhotep V; Sobekhotep VI in older studies) was an Egyptian king of the 13th Dynasty during the Second Intermediate Period. According to egyptologist Kim Ryholt he was the thirtieth pharaoh of the dynasty, w ...
, who was followed by
Wahibre Ibiau
Wahibre Ibiau (throne name: Wahibre; birth name: Ibiau, also Ibiaw, Iaib, or Ia-ib) was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the 13th Dynasty, who reigned c. 1670 BC for 10 years 8 months and 29 days according to the Turin King List.
Attestations
...
, then
Merneferre Ai
Merneferre Ay (also spelled Aya or Eje, sometimes known as Ay I) was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the mid 13th Dynasty. The longest reigning pharaoh of the 13th Dynasty, he ruled a likely fragmented Egypt for over 23 years in the early to mid ...
. Wahibre Ibiau ruled ten years, and Merneferre Ai ruled for twenty-three years, the longest of any Thirteenth Dynasty king, but neither of these two kings left as many attestations as either Neferhotep of Sobekhotep IV. Despite this, they both seem to have held at least parts of Lower Egypt. After Merneferre Ai, however, no king left his name on any object found outside the south.
[ Grajetzki. (2006) p. 74] This begins the final portion of the Thirteenth Dynasty when southern kings continue to reign over Upper Egypt. But when the unity of Egypt fully disintegrated, the Middle Kingdom gave way to the
Second Intermediate Period
The Second Intermediate Period marks a period when ancient Egypt fell into disarray for a second time, between the end of the Middle Kingdom and the start of the New Kingdom. The concept of a "Second Intermediate Period" was coined in 1942 b ...
.
[ Grajetzki. (2006) p. 75]
Administration
When the Eleventh Dynasty reunified Egypt it had to create a centralized administration such as had not existed in Egypt since the downfall of the Old Kingdom government. To do this, it appointed people to positions which had fallen out of use in the decentralized First Intermediate Period. Highest among these was the vizier.
[ Shaw. (2000) p. 174] The vizier was the chief minister for the king, handling all the day-to-day business of government in the king's place.
This was a monumental task, therefore it would often be split into two positions, a vizier of the north, and a vizier of the south. It is uncertain how often this occurred during the Middle Kingdom, but Senusret I clearly had two simultaneously functioning viziers.
Other positions were inherited from the provincial form of government at Thebes used by the Eleventh Dynasty before the reunification of Egypt.
[ Grajetzki. (2006) p. 21] The ''Overseer of Sealed Goods'' became the country's treasurer, and the ''Overseer of the Estate'' became the King's chief steward.
These three positions and the ''Scribe of the Royal Document,'' probably the king's personal scribe, appear to be the most important posts of the central government, judging by the monument count of those in these positions.
Beside this, many Old Kingdom posts which had lost their original meaning and become mere honorifics were brought back into the central government.
Only high-ranking officials could claim the title ''Member of the Elite'', which had been applied liberally during the First Intermediate Period.
This basic form of administration continued throughout the Middle Kingdom, though there is some evidence for a major reform of the central government under Senusret III. Records from his reign indicate that Upper and Lower Egypt were divided into separate ''waret'' and governed by separate administrators.
Administrative documents and private stelae indicate a proliferation of new bureaucratic titles around this time, which have been taken as evidence of a larger central government.
[ Richards. (2005) p. 7] Governance of the royal residence was moved into a separate division of government.
The military was placed under the control of a chief general.
However, it is possible that these titles and positions were much older, and simply were not recorded on funerary stelae due to religious conventions.
Provincial government
![House MK](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/House_MK.jpg)
Decentralization during the First Intermediate Period left the individual Egyptian provinces, or
Nomes, under the control of powerful families who held the hereditary title of ''Great Chief of the Nome'', or
Nomarch
A nomarch ( grc, νομάρχης, egy, ḥrj tp ꜥꜣ Great Chief) was a provincial governor in ancient Egypt; the country was divided into 42 provinces, called nomes (singular , plural ). A nomarch was the government official responsib ...
.
[ Trigger, Kemp, O'Connor, and Lloyd. (1983) p. 108] This position developed during the Fifth and Sixth Dynasties, when the various powers of Old Kingdom provincial officials began to be exercised by a single individual.
At roughly this time, the provincial aristocracy began building elaborate tombs for themselves, which have been taken as evidence of the wealth and power which these rulers had acquired as nomarchs.
By the end of the First Intermediate Period, some nomarchs ruled their nomes as minor potentates, such as the nomarch Nehry of Hermopolis, who dated inscriptions by his own regnal year.
When the Eleventh Dynasty came to power, it was necessary to subdue the power of the nomarchs if Egypt was to be reunified under a central government. The first major steps towards that end took place under Amenemhet I. Amenemhet made the city, not the nome, the center of administration, and only the ''
haty-a
Ḥaty-a was an ancient Egyptian rank and title given to local princes, mayors, or governors.
There is no standard translation for Ḥaty-a, and it is frequently left transliterated in scholarly literature.
In strings of ranking titles ''Ḥa ...
'', or mayor, of the larger cities would be permitted to carry the title of nomarch.
The title of nomarch continued to be used until the reign of Senusret III,
as did the elaborate tombs indicative of their power, after which they suddenly disappeared.
[ Trigger, Kemp, O'Connor, and Lloyd. (1983) p. 112] This has been interpreted several ways. Traditionally, it has been believed that Senusret III took some action to suppress the nomarch families during his reign.
[ Grimal. (1988) p. 167] Recently, other interpretations have been proposed. Detlef Franke has argued that Senusret II adopted a policy of educating the sons of nomarchs in the capital and appointing them to government posts. In this way, many provincial families may have been bled dry of scions.
Also, while the title of ''Great Overlord of the Nome'' disappeared, other distinctive titles of the nomarchs remained. During the First Intermediate Period, individuals holding the title of ''Great Overlord'' also often held the title of ''Overseer of Priests.''
[ Trigger, Kemp, O'Connor, and Lloyd. (1983) p. 109] In the late Middle Kingdom, there existed families holding the titles of mayor and overseer of priests as hereditary possessions.
Therefore, it has been argued that the great nomarch families were never subdued, but were simply absorbed into the pharaonic administration of the country.
While it is true that the large tombs indicative of nomarchs disappeared at the end of the Twelfth Dynasty, grand royal tombs also ceased being built soon thereafter due to general instability surrounding the decline of the Middle Kingdom.
Agriculture and climate
Throughout the history of ancient Egypt, the annual inundation of the
Nile River was relied upon to fertilize the land surrounding it. This was essential for agriculture and food production. There is evidence that the collapse of the previous
Old Kingdom
In ancient Egyptian history, the Old Kingdom is the period spanning c. 2700–2200 BC. It is also known as the "Age of the Pyramids" or the "Age of the Pyramid Builders", as it encompasses the reigns of the great pyramid-builders of the Fourth ...
may have been due in part to low flood levels, resulting in famine.
[ Bell. (1975) p. 227] This trend appears to have been reversed during the early years of the Middle Kingdom, with relatively high water levels recorded for much of this era, with an average inundation of 19 meters above its non-flood levels.
[ Bell. (1975) p. 230] The years of repeated high inundation levels correspond to the most prosperous period of the Middle Kingdom, which occurred during the reign of Amenemhat III.
[ Bell. (1975) p. 263] This seems to be confirmed in some of the literature of the period, such as in the
Instructions of Amenemhat
Instructions of Amenemhat (aka "Teaching of King Ammenemes I to His Son Sesostris") is a short ancient Egyptian poem of the ''sebayt'' genre written during the early Middle Kingdom. The poem takes the form of an intensely dramatic monologue deli ...
, where the king tells his son how agriculture prospered under his reign.
Art
![Статуя фараона Аменемхета III](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%8F_%D1%84%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%90%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BC%D1%85%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0_III.jpg)
After the reunification of Egypt in the Middle Kingdom, the kings of the Eleventh and Twelfth Dynasties were able to turn their focus back to art. In the Eleventh Dynasty, the kings had their monuments made in a style influenced by the Memphite models of the Fifth and early Sixth Dynasty. During this time, the pre-unification Theban relief style all but disappeared. These changes had an ideological purpose, as the Eleventh Dynasty kings were establishing a centralized state after the First Intermediate Period, and returning to the political ideals of the Old Kingdom. In the early Twelfth Dynasty, the artwork had a uniformity of style due to the influence of the royal workshops. It was at this point that the quality of artistic production for the elite members of society reached a high point that was never surpassed, although it was equaled in other periods. Egypt prospered in the late Twelfth Dynasty, and this was reflected in the quality of the materials used for royal and private monuments.
The kings of the Twelfth Dynasty were buried in
pyramid
A pyramid (from el, πυραμίς ') is a structure whose outer surfaces are triangular and converge to a single step at the top, making the shape roughly a pyramid in the geometric sense. The base of a pyramid can be trilateral, quadrilat ...
complexes based on those of the Fifth and Sixth Dynasties. In the
Old Kingdom
In ancient Egyptian history, the Old Kingdom is the period spanning c. 2700–2200 BC. It is also known as the "Age of the Pyramids" or the "Age of the Pyramid Builders", as it encompasses the reigns of the great pyramid-builders of the Fourth ...
, these were made of stone bricks, but the Middle Kingdom kings chose to have theirs made of mud bricks and finished with a casing of Tura limestone. Private tombs, such as those found in Thebes, usually consisted of a long passage cut into rock, with a small chamber at the end. These tended to have little or no decoration. Stone box
sarcophagi
A sarcophagus (plural sarcophagi or sarcophaguses) is a box-like funeral receptacle for a corpse, most commonly carved in stone, and usually displayed above ground, though it may also be buried. The word ''sarcophagus'' comes from the Greek ...
with both flat and vaulted lids were manufactured in the Middle Kingdom, as a continuation of the Old Kingdom tradition. The motifs on these were more varied and of higher artistic quality than that of any sarcophagi produced before and after the Middle Kingdom. Additionally, funerary
stelae
A stele ( ),Anglicized plural steles ( ); Greek plural stelai ( ), from Greek , ''stēlē''. The Greek plural is written , ''stēlai'', but this is only rarely encountered in English. or occasionally stela (plural ''stelas'' or ''stelæ''), whe ...
developed in regard to images and iconography. They continued to show the deceased seated in front of a table of offerings, and began to include the deceased's wife and other family members.
Towards the end of the Middle Kingdom, there was a change to the art pieces placed in non-royal tombs. The amount of
wooden tomb model
Wooden tomb models were deposited as grave goods in the tombs and burial shafts in Middle Kingdom of Egypt. They included a wide variety of wooden figurines and scenes, such as boats, granaries, baking and brewing scenes and butchery scenes.
Predy ...
s decreased drastically, and they were replaced by small faience models of food. Magic wands and rods, models of protective animals, and fertility figures began to be buried with the dead. Additionally, the number of statues and funerary stelae increased, but their quality decreased. In the late Twelfth Dynasty, coffins with interior decorations became rare, and the decorations on the outside became more elaborate. The
''rishi''-coffin made its first appearance during this time. Made of wood or
cartonnage
Cartonnage (word of French origin) is a type of material used in ancient Egyptian funerary masks from the First Intermediate Period to the Roman era. It was made of layers of linen or papyrus covered with plaster. Some of the Fayum mummy portrait ...
, the coffin was in the shape of a body wrapped in linen, wearing a beaded collar and a funerary mask.
There were also changes to the art form of stelae in the Middle Kingdom. During this time, round-topped stelae developed out of the rectangular form of previous periods. Many examples of both of these types come from this period;
excavation at Abydos yielded over 2000 private stelae, ranging from excellent works to crude objects, although very few belonged to the elite. Additionally, classic royal commemorative stelae were first found in this period. These took the form of a round-topped stelae, and they were used to mark boundaries. For example, Senusret III used them to mark the boundary between Egypt and Nubia.
Because of the prosperity of this period, the lower elite were able to commission statues and stelae for themselves, although these were of poorer artistic quality. Those who commissioned non-royal stelae had the ultimate goal of eternal existence. This goal was communicated with the specific placement of information on the stone slabs similar to royal stelae (the owner's image, offering formula, inscriptions of names, lineage and titles).
Statuary
![Head and Torso of a Noblewoman, ca](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/44/Head_and_Torso_of_a_Noblewoman%2C_ca._1844-1837_B.C.E._59.1.jpg)
In the first half of the Twelfth Dynasty, proportions of the human figure returned to the traditional Memphite style of the Fifth and early Sixth Dynasties. Male figures had broad shoulders, a low small of the back, and thick muscular limbs. Females had slender figures, a higher small of the back and no musculature. In this period, sketches for the production of statues and reliefs were laid out on a squared grid, a new guide system. Since this system contained a greater number of lines, it allowed more body parts to be marked. Standing figures were composed of eighteen squares from the feet to the hairline. Seated figures were made of fourteen squares between their feet and hairline, accounting for the horizontal thigh and knee. The black granite seated statue of king
Amenemhat III to the right, above is a perfect example of male proportions and the squared grid system at this period. Most royal statues, such as this one, would serve as representations of the king's power.
The quality of Egyptian statuary reached its peak in the Middle Kingdom.
Royal statues combined both elegance and strength in a manner that was seldom seen after this period. A popular form of statuary during this time was that of the
sphinx
A sphinx ( , grc, σφίγξ , Boeotian: , plural sphinxes or sphinges) is a mythical creature with the head of a human, the body of a lion, and the wings of a falcon.
In Greek tradition, the sphinx has the head of a woman, the haunches of ...
. During this period, sphinxes appeared in pairs, and were recumbent, with human faces, and a lion's mane and ears. An example would be the diorite sphinx of
Senusret III.
One of the innovations in
sculpture
Sculpture is the branch of the visual arts that operates in three dimensions. Sculpture is the three-dimensional art work which is physically presented in the dimensions of height, width and depth. It is one of the plastic arts. Durable ...
that occurred during the Middle Kingdom was the
block statue, which would continue to be popular through to the
Ptolemaic Kingdom almost 2,000 years later.
[ Teeter. (1994) p. 27] Block statues consist of a man
squatting with his knees drawn up to his chest and his arms folded on top his knees. Often, these men are wearing a "wide cloak" that reduces the body of the figure to a simple block-like shape. The surface of the garment or "wide cloak" allowed space for inscriptions. Most of the detail is reserved for the head of the individual being depicted. In some instances the modeling of the limbs has been retained by the sculptor. There are two basic types of block statues: ones with the feet completely covered by the cloak and ones with the feet uncovered.
This statue to the right represents a woman from the top echelon of society and demonstrates characteristics of Middle Kingdom art. The heavy tripartite wig frames the broad face and passes behind the ears, thus giving the impression of forcing them forward. They are large in keeping with the ancient Egyptian ideal of beauty; the same ideal required small breasts, and also in this respect the sculpture is no exception. Whereas the natural curve of the eyebrows dips towards the root of the nose, the artificial eyebrows in low
relief
Relief is a sculptural method in which the sculpted pieces are bonded to a solid background of the same material. The term '' relief'' is from the Latin verb ''relevo'', to raise. To create a sculpture in relief is to give the impression that th ...
are absolutely straight above the inner corners of the eyes, a feature which places the bust early in the Twelfth Dynasty. Around 1900 BC these artificial eyebrows began to follow the natural curve and dip toward the nose.
In the later Twelfth Dynasty, proportions of the human figure changed. These changes survived through the Thirteenth to Seventeenth Dynasties. Male figures had smaller heads in proportion the rest of the body, narrow shoulders and waists, a high small of the back, and no muscled limbs. Female figures had these proportions more to an extreme with narrower shoulders and waists, slender limbs and a higher small of the back in order to keep a distinction between male and female measurements.
Literature
Richard B. Parkinson and
Ludwig D. Morenz write that ancient Egyptian literature—narrowly defined as ''
belles-lettres'' ("beautiful writing")—were not recorded in written form until the early Twelfth Dynasty. Old Kingdom texts served mainly to maintain the divine cults, preserve souls in the afterlife, and document accounts for practical uses in daily life. It was not until the Middle Kingdom that texts were written for the purpose of entertainment and intellectual curiosity.
Parkinson and Morenz also speculate that written works of the Middle Kingdom were transcriptions of the
oral literature of the Old Kingdom.
[; .] It is known that some oral poetry was preserved in later writing; for example, litter-bearers' songs were preserved as written verses in tomb inscriptions of the Old Kingdom.
[.]
It is also thought that the growth of the middle class and a growth in the number of scribes needed for the expanded bureaucracy under Senusret II helped spur the development of Middle Kingdom literature.
Later ancient Egyptians considered the literature from this time as "classic".
Stories such as the
Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor
The "Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor" is a Middle Kingdom story of an Ancient Egyptian voyage to "the King's mines".
Historical information
At least one source states that the papyrus having the story written upon it is located within the Imp ...
and the
Story of Sinuhe
''The Story of Sinuhe'' (also known as Sanehat) Retrieved November 6, 2018. is considered one of the finest works of ancient Egyptian literature. It is a narrative set in the aftermath of the death of Pharaoh Amenemhat I, founder of the 12th Dy ...
were composed during this period, and were popular enough to be widely copied afterwards.
Many philosophical works were also created at this time, including the
Dispute between a man and his Ba
The Dispute between a man and his Ba or The Debate Between a Man and his Soul is an ancient Egyptian text dating to the Middle Kingdom. The text is considered to fall into the genre of Sebayt, a form of Egyptian wisdom literature. The text takes ...
where an unhappy man converses with his soul,
The Satire of the Trades
''The Satire of the Trades'', also called ''The Instruction of Dua-Kheti'', is a didactic work of ancient Egyptian literature. It takes the form of an instruction, composed by a scribe from Sile named Dua-Kheti for his son Pepi. The author is th ...
in which the role of the scribe is praised above all other jobs, and the magic tales supposedly told to the Old Kingdom pharaoh
Khufu
Khufu or Cheops was an ancient Egyptian monarch who was the second pharaoh of the Fourth Dynasty, in the first half of the Old Kingdom period ( 26th century BC). Khufu succeeded his father Sneferu as king. He is generally accepted as having c ...
in the
Westcar Papyrus
The Westcar Papyrus (inventory-designation: ''P. Berlin 3033'') is an ancient Egyptian text containing five stories about miracles performed by priests and magicians. In the papyrus text, each of these tales are told at the royal court of king K ...
.
Pharaohs of the
Twelfth through
Eighteenth Dynasty are credited with preserving some of the most interesting of
Egyptian
Egyptian describes something of, from, or related to Egypt.
Egyptian or Egyptians may refer to:
Nations and ethnic groups
* Egyptians, a national group in North Africa
** Egyptian culture, a complex and stable culture with thousands of years of ...
papyri:
* 1950 BC:
Akhmim Wooden Tablet The Akhmim wooden tablets, also known as the Cairo wooden tablets (Cairo Cat. 25367 and 25368), are two wooden writing tablets from ancient Egypt, solving arithmetical problems. They each measure around and are covered with plaster. The tablets ar ...
* 1950 BC:
Heqanakht papyri
The Heqanakht papyri or Heqanakht letters (also spelled Hekanakht) are a group of papyri dating to the early Middle Kingdom of Ancient Egypt that were found in the tomb complex of Vizier Ipi. Their find was located in the burial chamber of a s ...
* 1800 BC:
Berlin papyrus 6619
The Berlin Papyrus 6619, simply called the Berlin Papyrus when the context makes it clear, is one of the primary sources of ancient Egyptian mathematics. One of the two mathematics problems on the Papyrus may suggest that the ancient Egyptians kne ...
* 1800 BC:
Moscow Mathematical Papyrus
The Moscow Mathematical Papyrus, also named the Golenishchev Mathematical Papyrus after its first non-Egyptian owner, Egyptologist Vladimir Golenishchev, is an ancient Egyptian mathematical papyrus containing several problems in arithmetic, geom ...
* 1650 BC:
Rhind Mathematical Papyrus
* 1600 BC:
Edwin Smith papyrus
* 1550 BC:
Ebers papyrus
References
Bibliography
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Further reading
*Allen, James P. ''Middle Egyptian Literature: Eight Literary Works of the Middle Kingdom''. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2015.
*Bourriau, Janine. ''Pharaohs and Mortals: Egyptian Art in the Middle Kingdom''. Cambridge, UK: Fitzwilliam Museum, 1988.
*Grajetzki, Wolfgang. ''The Middle Kingdom of Ancient Egypt: History, Archaeology and Society''. Bristol, UK: Golden House, 2006.
*Kemp, Barry J. ''Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilization''. 2d ed. London: Routledge, 2006.
*Oppenheim, Adela, Dieter Arnold, and Kei Yamamoto. ''Ancient Egypt Transformed: The Middle Kingdom''. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2015.
*Parkinson, Richard B. ''Voices From Ancient Egypt: An Anthology of Middle Kingdom Writings''. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991.
*--. ''Poetry and Culture in Middle Kingdom Egypt: A Dark Side to Perfection''. London: Continuum, 2002.
*Szpakowska, Kasia. ''Daily Life in Ancient Egypt''. Oxford: Blackwell, 2008.
*Wendrich, Willeke, ed. ''Egyptian Archaeology''. Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010.
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