Effeminacy is the embodiment of traits and/or expressions in those who are not of the
female
Female ( symbol: ♀) is the sex of an organism that produces the large non-motile ova (egg cells), the type of gamete (sex cell) that fuses with the male gamete during sexual reproduction.
A female has larger gametes than a male. Females ...
sex (e.g.
boy
A boy is a young male human. The term is commonly used for a child or an adolescent. When a male human reaches adulthood, he is described as a man.
Definition, etymology, and use
According to the ''Merriam-Webster Dictionary'', a boy is ...
s and
men
A man is an adult male human. Prior to adulthood, a male human is referred to as a boy (a male child or adolescent). Like most other male mammals, a man's genome usually inherits an X chromosome from the mother and a Y chro ...
) that are often associated with what is generally perceived to be feminine behaviours, mannerisms, styles, or
gender role
A gender role, also known as a sex role, is a social role encompassing a range of behaviors and attitudes that are generally considered acceptable, appropriate, or desirable for a person based on that person's sex. Gender roles are usually cent ...
s, rather than with traditionally masculine behaviours, mannerisms, styles or roles. Effeminacy and other gender expressions are independent of a person's sexuality or sexual identity and are displayed by people of all sexualities and none. However, effeminacy is seen in some societies as something embodied by some in the homosexual male community. The embodiment of effeminacy by people in some societies has resulted in prejudice, discrimination, antagonism and insults towards those who display it.
History
Terminology
''Effeminate'' comes from
Latin
Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...
'' effeminātus'', from the factitiveprefix ''ex-'' (from ''ex'' 'out') and ''femina'' 'woman'; it means 'made feminine, emasculated, weakened'. Another Latin term is ''mollities'', meaning 'softness'.
In ancient Koine Greek, the word for effeminate is κίναιδος ''kinaidos'' (''
cinaedus
Homosexuality in ancient Rome often differs markedly from the contemporary West. Latin lacks words that would precisely translate "homosexual" and "heterosexual". The primary dichotomy of ancient Roman sexuality was active/ dominant/masculine ...
'' in its Latinized form), or μαλακοί '' malakoi'': a man "whose most salient feature was a supposedly 'feminine' love of being sexually penetrated by other men".
"A ''cinaedus'' is a man who cross-dresses or flirts like a girl. Indeed, the word's etymology suggests an indirect sexual act emulating a promiscuous woman. This term has been borrowed from the Greek ''kinaidos'' (which may itself have come from a language of Ionian Greeks of
Asia Minor
Anatolia, tr, Anadolu Yarımadası), and the Anatolian plateau, also known as Asia Minor, is a large peninsula in Western Asia and the westernmost protrusion of the Asian continent. It constitutes the major part of modern-day Turkey. The re ...
, primarily signifying a purely effeminate dancer who entertained his audiences with a ''tympanum'' or
tambourine
The tambourine is a musical instrument in the percussion family consisting of a frame, often of wood or plastic, with pairs of small metal jingles, called "zills". Classically the term tambourine denotes an instrument with a drumhead, though ...
in his hand, and adopted a lascivious style, often suggestively wiggling his buttocks in such a way as to suggest anal intercourse....The primary meaning of ''cinaedus'' never died out; the term never became a
dead metaphor A dead metaphor is a figure of speech which has lost the original imagery of its meaning by extensive, repetitive, and popular usage. Because dead metaphors have a conventional meaning that differs from the original, they can be understood without ...
."
Other vernacular words for effeminacy include: ''pansy'', ''nelly'', ''pretty boy'', ''nancy boy'', ''girly boy'', ''molly'', ''
sissy
''Sissy'' (derived from '' sister''), also ''sissy baby'', ''sissy boy'', ''sissy man'', ''sissy pants'', etc., is a pejorative term for a boy or man who does not demonstrate masculine, and shows possible signs of fragility. Generally, ''sissy'' ...
'', '' pussy'', ''tomgirl'', ''femboy'', ''roseboy'', ''baby'', and ''
girl
A girl is a young female human, usually a child or an adolescent. When a girl becomes an adult, she is accurately described as a ''woman''. However, the term ''girl'' is also used for other meanings, including ''young woman'',Dictionary.c ...
'' (when applied to a boy or, especially, adult man). The word ''effete'' similarly means effeminacy or over-refinement, but comes from the Latin term ''effetus'' meaning 'having given birth; exhausted', from ''ex-'' and ''fetus'' 'offspring'. The term ''tomgirl'', meaning a girlish boy, comes from an inversion of ''
tomboy
A tomboy is a term for a girl or a young woman with masculine qualities. It can include wearing androgynous or unfeminine clothing and actively engage in physical sports or other activities and behaviors usually associated with boys or men. W ...
'', meaning a boyish girl. The term ''girly boy'' comes from a gender-inversion of '' girly girl''.
Ancient Greece and Rome
Greece
Greek historian
Plutarch
Plutarch (; grc-gre, Πλούταρχος, ''Ploútarchos''; ; – after AD 119) was a Greek Middle Platonist philosopher, historian, biographer, essayist, and priest at the Temple of Apollo in Delphi. He is known primarily for hi ...
recounts that Periander, the tyrant of
Ambracia
Ambracia (; grc-gre, Ἀμβρακία, occasionally , ''Ampracia'') was a city of ancient Greece on the site of modern Arta. It was captured by the Corinthians in 625 BC and was situated about from the Ambracian Gulf, on a bend of the navigabl ...
, asked his "boy", "Aren't you pregnant yet?" in the presence of other people, causing the boy to kill him in revenge for being treated as if effeminate or a woman (''Amatorius'' 768F).
When
Aeschines
Aeschines (; Greek: , ''Aischínēs''; 389314 BC) was a Greek statesman and one of the ten Attic orators.
Biography
Although it is known he was born in Athens, the records regarding his parentage and early life are conflicting; but it seems ...
was accused of treason by Athenians Timarchus and
Demosthenes
Demosthenes (; el, Δημοσθένης, translit=Dēmosthénēs; ; 384 – 12 October 322 BC) was a Greek statesman and orator in ancient Athens. His orations constitute a significant expression of contemporary Athenian intellectual pr ...
in 346 BC; he brought a counter suit claiming Timarchus had prostituted himself to (or been "kept" by) other men (
Against Timarchus "Against Timarchus" ( el, Κατὰ Τιμάρχου) was a speech by Aeschines accusing Timarchus of being unfit to involve himself in public life. The case was brought about in 346–5 BC, in response to Timarchus, along with Demosthenes, bringing ...
, and also attributed also
Demosthenes
Demosthenes (; el, Δημοσθένης, translit=Dēmosthénēs; ; 384 – 12 October 322 BC) was a Greek statesman and orator in ancient Athens. His orations constitute a significant expression of contemporary Athenian intellectual pr ...
' nickname Batalos ("arse") to his "unmanliness and ''kinaidiā''" and frequently commented on his "unmanly and womanish temper", even criticising his clothing: "If anyone took those dainty little coats and soft shirts off you... and took them round for the jurors to handle, I think they'd be quite unable to say, if they hadn't been told in advance, whether they had hold of a man's clothing or a woman's."Dover, 1989
Demosthenes is also implicated in passive homosexuality and the prostitution of youth: "There is a certain Aristion, a Plataean..., who as a youth was outstandingly good-looking and lived for a long time in Demosthenes' house. Allegations about the part he was playing it., 'undergoing or doing what'there vary, and it would be most unseemly for me to talk about it."
The late Greek '' Erôtes'' ("Loves", "Forms of Desire", "Affairs of the Heart"), preserved with manuscripts by Lucian, contains a debate "between two men, Charicles and Callicratidas, over the relative merits of women and boys as vehicles of male sexual pleasure." Callicratidas, "far from being effeminised by his sexual predilection for boys... Callicratidas's inclination renders him hypervirile... Callicratidas's sexual desire for boys, then, makes him more of a man; it does not weaken or subvert his male
gender identity
Gender identity is the personal sense of one's own gender. Gender identity can correlate with a person's assigned sex or can differ from it. In most individuals, the various biological determinants of sex are congruent, and consistent with the ...
but rather consolidates it." In contrast, "Charicles' erotic preference for women seems to have had the corresponding effect of effeminising him: when the reader first encounters him, for example, Charicles is described as exhibiting 'a skillful use of cosmetics, so as to be attractive to women.'"
Rome
Over-refinement, fine clothes and other possessions, the company of women, certain trades, and too much fondness with women were all deemed effeminate traits in Roman society. Taking an inappropriate sexual position, passive or "
bottom
Bottom may refer to:
Anatomy and sex
* Bottom (BDSM), the partner in a BDSM who takes the passive, receiving, or obedient role, to that of the top or dominant
* Bottom (sex), a term used by gay couples and BDSM
* Buttocks or bottom, part of th ...
", in same-gender sex was considered effeminate and unnatural. Touching the head with a finger and wearing a
goatee
A goatee is a style of facial hair incorporating hair on one's chin but not the cheeks. The exact nature of the style has varied according to time and culture.
Description
Until the late 20th century, the term ''goatee'' was used to refer sol ...
were also considered effeminate.
Roman consul
Scipio Aemilianus
Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus Aemilianus (185–129 BC), known as Scipio Aemilianus or Scipio Africanus the Younger, was a Roman general and statesman noted for his military exploits in the Third Punic War against Carthage and during the ...
questioned one of his opponents, P. Sulpicius Galus: "For the kind of man who adorns himself daily in front of a mirror, wearing perfume; whose eyebrows are shaved off; who walks around with plucked beard and thighs; who when he was a young man reclined at banquets next to his lover, wearing a long-sleeved tunic; who is fond of men as he is of wine: can anyone doubt that he has done what ''cinaedi'' are in the habit of doing?"
Roman orator Quintilian described, "The plucked body, the broken walk, the female attire," as "signs of one who is soft
ollis Ollis is a surname. Notable people with the surname include:
* Bernard Ollis (born 1951), artist
* Ian Ollis (born 1970), politician
* John Ollis (1839–1913), politician
* Richard Ollis (born 1961), cricketer
* William Ollis (1871–1940), footb ...
and not a real man."
For Roman men masculinity also meant self-control, even in the face of painful emotions, illnesses, or death.
Cicero
Marcus Tullius Cicero ( ; ; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, and academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises that led to the esta ...
says, "There exist certain precepts, even laws, that prohibit a man from being effeminate in pain," and
Seneca
Seneca may refer to:
People and language
* Seneca (name), a list of people with either the given name or surname
* Seneca people, one of the six Iroquois tribes of North America
** Seneca language, the language of the Seneca people
Places Extrat ...
adds, "If I must suffer illness, it will be my wish to do nothing out of control, nothing effeminately."
Emperor/philosopher Julian the Apostate, in his ''Against the Galileans'', wrote: ''Why the Egyptians are more intelligent and more given to crafts, and the Syrians unwarlike and effeminate, but at the same time intelligent, hot-tempered, vain and quick to learn?''
In his '' Commentaries on the
Gallic Wars
The Gallic Wars were waged between 58 and 50 BC by the Roman general Julius Caesar against the peoples of Gaul (present-day France, Belgium, Germany and Switzerland). Gallic, Germanic, and British tribes fought to defend their homel ...
'',
Julius Caesar
Gaius Julius Caesar (; ; 12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC), was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in a civil war, ...
wrote that the
Belgians
Belgians ( nl, Belgen; french: Belges; german: Belgier) are people identified with the Kingdom of Belgium, a federal state in Western Europe. As Belgium is a multinational state, this connection may be residential, legal, historical, or cultur ...
were the bravest of all
Gaul
Gaul ( la, Gallia) was a region of Western Europe first described by the Romans. It was inhabited by Celtic and Aquitani tribes, encompassing present-day France, Belgium, Luxembourg, most of Switzerland, parts of Northern Italy (only during ...
s because "merchants least frequently resort to them, and import those things which tend to effeminate the mind".
Emperor
Marcus Aurelius
Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (Latin: áːɾkus̠ auɾέːli.us̠ antɔ́ːni.us̠ English: ; 26 April 121 – 17 March 180) was Roman emperor from 161 to 180 AD and a Stoic philosopher. He was the last of the rulers known as the Five Good ...
evidently considered effeminacy an undesirable trait, but it is unclear as to what or who was being referred.
New Testament
The New Testament grc, Ἡ Καινὴ Διαθήκη, transl. ; la, Novum Testamentum. (NT) is the second division of the Christian biblical canon. It discusses the teachings and person of Jesus, as well as events in first-century Chri ...
book of
I Corinthians
The First Epistle to the Corinthians ( grc, Α΄ ᾽Επιστολὴ πρὸς Κορινθίους) is one of the Pauline epistles, part of the New Testament of the Christian Bible. The epistle is attributed to Paul the Apostle and a co-author ...
6:9. Translations use different terms to express this. The online Greek Interlinear Bible uses Strongs concordance (last corrected in 2008) translates ''Malakoi'' as "
Catamite
In ancient Greece and Rome, a catamite (Latin: ''catamitus'') was a pubescent boy who was the intimate companion of an older male, usually in a pederastic relationship. It was generally a term of affection and literally means " Ganymede" in ...
s", and ''Arsenokoitia'' as "
sodomite
Sodomite may refer to:
* A person who practices sodomy
* A resident of Sodom and Gomorrah, Sodom
* Sodomites (film), ''Sodomites'' (film), a 1998 short film by Gaspar Noé
{{disambiguation ...
niang pao
''Niang pao'' ( zh, 娘炮) is a derogatory Chinese term for men perceived to be effeminate.
Overview
Niang pao literally translates to "girlie guns / girlie cannons" but is more commonly translated as "sissy". It is generally used as an insult ...
''.
In September 2021, the
Associated Press
The Associated Press (AP) is an American non-profit news agency headquartered in New York City. Founded in 1846, it operates as a cooperative, unincorporated association. It produces news reports that are distributed to its members, U.S. ne ...
reported that the mainland Chinese government has banned effeminate men from appearing in television commercials. The Chinese government instructed broadcasters to stop showing "sissy men."
United States
In the United States, boys are often
homosocial
In sociology, homosociality means same-sex relationships that are not of a romantic or sexual nature, such as friendship, mentorship, or others. Researchers who use the concept mainly do so to explain how men uphold men's dominance in society.
...
, and gender role performance determines social rank. While
gay
''Gay'' is a term that primarily refers to a homosexual person or the trait of being homosexual. The term originally meant 'carefree', 'cheerful', or 'bright and showy'.
While scant usage referring to male homosexuality dates to the late 1 ...
boys receive the same enculturation, they are less compliant. Martin Levine summarizes: "Harry (1982, 51–52), for example, found that 42 percent of his gay respondents were ' sissies' during childhood. Only 11 percent of his heterosexual samples were gender-role nonconformists. Bell, Weinberg, and Hammersmith (1981, 188) reported that half of their male homosexual subjects practised gender-inappropriate behaviour in childhood. Among their heterosexual men, the rate of noncompliance was 25 percent. Saghir and Robins (1973, 18) found that one-third of their gay man respondents conformed to gender role dictates. Only 3 percent of their heterosexual men deviated from the norm." Thus effeminate boys, or sissies, are physically and verbally harassed (Saghir and Robins, 1973, 17–18; Bell, Weinberg, and Hammersmith 1981, 74–84), causing them to feel worthlessHarry 1982, 20 and "de-feminise".
Prior to the Stonewall riots, inconsistent gender role performance had been noticed among gay men:Cory and LeRoy, 1963 "They have a different face for different occasions. In conversations with each other, they often undergo a subtle change. I have seen men who appeared to be normal suddenly smile roguishly, soften their voices, and simper as they greeted homosexual friends ..Many times I saw these changes occur after I had gained a homosexual's confidence and he could safely risk my disapproval. Once as I watched a luncheon companion become an effeminate caricature of himself, he apologized, 'It is hard to always remember that one is a man.'" Pre-Stonewall "
closet
A closet (especially in North American usage) is an enclosed space, with a door, used for storage, particularly that of clothes. ''Fitted closets'' are built into the walls of the house so that they take up no apparent space in the room. Closet ...
" culture accepted homosexuality as effeminate behaviour, and thus emphasized
camp
Camp may refer to:
Outdoor accommodation and recreation
* Campsite or campground, a recreational outdoor sleeping and eating site
* a temporary settlement for nomads
* Camp, a term used in New England, Northern Ontario and New Brunswick to descri ...
, drag, and swish including an interest in fashionHenry, 1955West, 1977 and decorating. Masculine gay men were marginalised and formed their own communities, such as the
leather subculture
Leather subculture denotes practices and styles of dress organized around sexual activities that involve leather garments, such as leather jackets, vests, boots, chaps, harnesses, or other items. Wearing leather garments is one way that pa ...
, and/or wore clothes that were commonly associated with working-class individuals, such as sailor uniforms.
Post-Stonewall, " clone culture" became dominant and effeminacy is now marginalised. One indicator of this is a definite preference shown in personal ads for masculine-behaving men. The avoidance of effeminacy by men, including gay ones, has been linked to possible impedance of personal and public health. Regarding
HIV/AIDS
Human immunodeficiency virus infection and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) is a spectrum of conditions caused by infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), a retrovirus. Following initial infection an individual ...
, masculine behaviour was stereotyped as being unconcerned about safe sex practices while engaging in promiscuous sexual behaviour. Early reports from New York City indicated that more women had themselves tested for HIV/AIDS than men. David Halperin compares "universalising" and "minoritising" notions of gender deviance: "'Softness' either may represent the specter of potential gender failure that haunts all normative masculinity, an ever-present threat to the masculinity of every man, or it may represent the disfiguring peculiarity of a small class of deviant individuals."
The term ''effeminiphobia'' (sometimes ''effemiphobic'', as used by Randy P. Conner) was coined by Will Fellows to describe strong anti-effeminacy. Michael Bailey coined the similar term ''femiphobia'' to describe the ambivalence gay men and culture have about effeminate behaviour in 1995. Gay author Tim Bergling popularized the term ''
sissyphobia
''Sissy'' (derived from '' sister''), also ''sissy baby'', ''sissy boy'', ''sissy man'', ''sissy pants'', etc., is a pejorative term for a boy or man who does not demonstrate masculine, and shows possible signs of fragility. Generally, ''sissy'' ...
Transgender
A transgender (often abbreviated as trans) person is someone whose gender identity or gender expression does not correspond with their sex assigned at birth. Many transgender people experience dysphoria, which they seek to alleviate through ...
writer and
biologist
A biologist is a scientist who conducts research in biology. Biologists are interested in studying life on Earth, whether it is an individual Cell (biology), cell, a multicellular organism, or a Community (ecology), community of Biological inter ...
Julia Serano
Julia Michelle Serano (; born 1967) is an American writer, musician, spoken-word performer, trans– bi activist, and biologist. She is known for her transfeminist books ''Whipping Girl'' (2007), ''Excluded'' (2013), and ''Outspoken'' (2016). Sh ...
has coined the similar term ''effemimania''. Feminist Sociologist Rhea Ashley Hoskin suggests that these terms can be understood as relating to a larger construct of '' femmephobia'', or "prejudice, discrimination, or antagonism directed against someone who is ''perceived'' to identify, embody, or express femininely and toward people and objects gendered femininely." Since the 2000s,
Peter Hennen
Peter may refer to:
People
* List of people named Peter, a list of people and fictional characters with the given name
* Peter (given name)
** Saint Peter (died 60s), apostle of Jesus, leader of the early Christian Church
* Peter (surname), a sur ...
's cultural analysis of gay masculinities has found effeminacy to be a “historically varying concept deployed primarily as a means of stabilising a given society’s concept of masculinity and controlling the conduct of its men based upon the repudiation of the feminine”.
Modern context
''Femboy'' (alternatively spelled ''femboi'') is a modern slang term used to refer to a young person who identifies as male and who displays traditionally feminine characteristics, such as wearing dresses and skirts. (Fem/Femme instead of Femboy for
trans women
A trans woman or a transgender woman is a woman who was assigned male at birth. Trans women have a female gender identity, may experience gender dysphoria, and may transition; this process commonly includes hormone replacement therapy and s ...
/
non-binary gender
Non-binary and genderqueer are umbrella terms for gender identities that are not solely male or femaleidentities that are outside the gender binary. Non-binary identities fall under the transgender umbrella, since non-binary people typicall ...
individuals). It is a
portmanteau
A portmanteau word, or portmanteau (, ) is a blend of words The term ''femboy'' emerged by at least the 1990s and gained traction online, used in both sexual and non-sexual contexts. Recently, femboys have become increasingly visible due to
trends such as "Femboy Friday".
While the term can be used as an insult directed towards people who
cross-dress
Cross-dressing is the act of wearing clothes usually worn by a different gender. From as early as pre-modern history, cross-dressing has been practiced in order to disguise, comfort, entertain, and self-express oneself.
Cross-dressing has play ...
(or misappropriating transgender as the same thing), it is also used as a positive/self-describing term within the LGBT community.
See also
*
Androgyny
Androgyny is the possession of both masculine and feminine characteristics. Androgyny may be expressed with regard to biological sex, gender identity, or gender expression.
When ''androgyny'' refers to mixed biological sex characteristics in ...
*
Bakla
In the Philippines, a baklâ (), bayot ( Cebuano) or agî ( Hiligaynon) is a person who was assigned male at birth and has adopted a feminine gender expression. They are often considered a third gender. Many bakla are exclusively attracted to ...
*
Bishōnen
(; also transliterated ) is a Japanese term literally meaning "beautiful youth (boy)" and describes an aesthetic that can be found in disparate areas in East Asia: a young man of androgynous beauty. This word originated from the Tang dynas ...
*
En femme
The term ''en femme'' is a lexical borrowing of a French phrase. It is used in the transgender and crossdressing community to describe the act of wearing feminine clothing or expressing a stereotypically feminine personality. The term is borro ...
*
Ergi
(noun) and (adjective) are two Old Norse terms of insult, denoting effeminacy or other unmanly behaviour. ' (also ') is "unmanly" and ''ergi'' is "unmanliness"; the terms have cognates in other Germanic languages such as ', ', ''arag'', ''arug ...
*
Femininity
Femininity (also called womanliness) is a set of attributes, behaviors, and roles generally associated with women and girls. Femininity can be understood as socially constructed, and there is also some evidence that some behaviors considered f ...
*
Gender bender
A gender bender is a person who dresses up and acts like the opposite sex. Bending expected gender roles may also be called a genderfuck.
Gender bending may be political, stemming from the early identity politics movements of the 1960s and 19 ...
*
Gender variance
Gender variance or gender nonconformity is behavior or gender expression by an individual that does not match masculine or feminine gender norms. A gender-nonconforming person may be variant in their gender identity, being transgender or non-b ...
Gynomorph
Gynomorph is a word used to describe an organism with female physical characteristics.
Mythology
In Greek mythology and religion, a gynomorph was a bi-gendered god with both masculine and feminine characteristics. Gynomorphs were portrayed as ef ...
*
Herbivore men
Herbivore men or grass-eater men (草食(系)男子, ''Sōshoku(-kei) danshi'') is a term used in Japan to describe young men who express little interest in getting married or being assertive in relationships with women. The term was coined by th ...
*
Kkonminam
''Kkonminam'' (; ''kkot/n'' = flower, ''minam'' 남= handsome man) has been commonly used in South Korea since the late-1990s to refer to young men who are concerned with personal style and fashion. Although they are sometimes regarded as ...
Non-binary gender
Non-binary and genderqueer are umbrella terms for gender identities that are not solely male or femaleidentities that are outside the gender binary. Non-binary identities fall under the transgender umbrella, since non-binary people typicall ...
*
Otokonoko
is a Japanese term for men who have a culturally feminine gender expression. This includes amongst others males with feminine appearances, or those cross-dressing. is a play on the word ("boy", from the characters for 'male' and 'child'), w ...
Queer heterosexuality
Queer heterosexuality is heterosexual practice or identity that is controversially called queer. "Queer heterosexuality" is argued to consist of heterosexual, cisgender and allosexual persons who show nontraditional gender expressions, or who adop ...
*
Sex and gender distinction
Though the terms '' sex'' and '' gender'' have been used interchangeably since at least the fourteenth century, in contemporary academic literature they usually have distinct meanings. ''Sex'' generally refers to an organism's biological sex, whil ...
*
Social construction of gender
The social construction of gender is a theory in feminism and sociology about the manifestation of cultural origins, mechanisms, and corollaries of gender perception and expression in the context of interpersonal and group social interaction. Spe ...
*
Third gender
Third gender is a concept in which individuals are categorized, either by themselves or by society, as neither man nor woman. It is also a social category present in societies that recognize three or more genders. The term ''third'' is usuall ...
*
Transgender
A transgender (often abbreviated as trans) person is someone whose gender identity or gender expression does not correspond with their sex assigned at birth. Many transgender people experience dysphoria, which they seek to alleviate through ...
*
Two-spirit
Two-spirit (also two spirit, 2S or, occasionally, twospirited) is a modern, , umbrella term used by some Indigenous North Americans to describe Native people in their communities who fulfill a traditional third-gender (or other gender-variant) ...
Notes
References
Bibliography
* ''On Virtues and Vices'', Aristotle, trans. H. Rackham, Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1992. Vol. #285
* ''The Eudemian Ethics'', Aristotle, trans. H. Rackham, Loeb Classical Library. Vol. #285
*
Oxford English Dictionary
The ''Oxford English Dictionary'' (''OED'') is the first and foundational historical dictionary of the English language, published by Oxford University Press (OUP). It traces the historical development of the English language, providing a co ...
, 20 vol. It has 75 references in English literature of over 500 years of usage of the word 'effeminate'.
* Davis, Madeline and Lapovsky Kennedy, Elizabeth (1989). "Oral History and the Study of Sexuality in the Lesbian Community", ''Hidden from History: Reclaiming the Gay & Lesbian Past'' (1990), Duberman, etc., eds. New York: Meridian, New American Library, Penguin Books. .
* Winkler, John J. (1990). ''The Constraints of Desire: The Anthropology of Sex and Gender in Ancient Greece''. New York: Routledge.
* Williams, Craig A. (1999). ''Roman Homosexuality: Ideologies of Masculinity in Classical Antiquity''. New York: Oxford University Press.
* Martin, Dale B. (1996). "Arsenokoités and Malakos: Meanings and Consequences", ''Biblical Ethics & Homosexuality: Listening to Scripture'', Robert L. Brawley, ed. Westminster John Knox Press * Holland, Tom (2004). ''Rubicon: The Last Years of the Roman Republic''. Doubleday. .
* Halperin, David M. (2002). ''How To Do The History of Homosexuality'', p. 125. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. .
* K.J. Dover, (1989). ''Greek Homosexuality''. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. .
* Levine, Martin P. (1998). Gay Macho. New York: New York University Press. .
* Darryl B. Hill, ''"Feminine" Heterosexual Men: Subverting Heteropatriarchal Sexual Scripts?'' (The Journal of Men's Studies, Spring 2006, Men's Studies Press; ISSN 1060-8265)
** Gagnon, John H. (1977). ''Human Sexualities''. Glenview, Ill.: Scott, Foresman.
** David, Deborah S. and Brannon, Robert (1976). ''The Forty-Nine Percent Majority: The Male Sex Role''. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley.
** Harry (1982). ''Gay Children Grown Up: Gender, Culture and Gender Deviance''. New York: Praeger.
** Bell, Weinberg, and Hammersmith (1981). ''Sexual Preference: Its Development in Men and Women''. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
** Saghir and Robins (1973).
** Karlen, Arno (1978). "Homosexuality: The Scene and Its Student", ''The Sociology of Sex: An Introductory Reader'', James M. Henslin and
Edward Sagarin
Edward Sagarin (September 18, 1913 – June 10, 1986), also known by his pen name Donald Webster Cory, was an American professor of sociology and criminology at the City University of New York, and a writer. His book ''The Homosexual in America: ...
eds. New York: Schocken.
** Cory, Donald W. and LeRoy, John P. (1963). ''The Homosexual and His Society: A View from Within''. New York: Citadel Press.
** Newton, Esther (1972). ''Mother Camp: Female Impersonators in America''. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.
** Stearn, Jess (1962). ''The Sixth Man''. New York: MacFadden.
* Bergling, Tim (2001). ''Sissyphobia: Gay Men and Effeminate Behavior''. New York: Harrington Park Press. .
** Bailey, Michael; Kim, Peggy; Hills, Alex; and Linsenmeier, Joan (1997). "Butch, Femme, or Straight Acting? Partner Preferences of Gay Men and Lesbians.", ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', 73(5), pp. 960–973.
** Bergling, Tim (1997). "Sissyphobia", ''Genre'', p. 53. September.
** Bailey, Michael (1995). "Gender Identity", ''The Lives of Lesbians, Gays, and Bisexuals'', p. 71-93. New York: Harcourt Brace.
Further reading
* Padva, Gilad. "Claiming Lost Gay Youth, Embracing Femininostalgia: Todd Haynes's ''Dottie Gets Spanked'' and ''Velvet Goldmine''". In: Padva, Gilad, ''Queer Nostalgia in Cinema and Pop Culture'', pp. 72–97 (Palgrave Macmillan, 2014, ).