Ecological modernization is a school of thought that argues that both the state and the market can work together to protect the environment.
[Mol, A.P.J, G Spaargaren, and D.A Sonnenfeld. “Ecological Modernization Theory: Taking Stock, Moving Forward.” In ''Routledge International Handbook of Social and Environmental Change'', 31–46. Routledge, 2013.] It has gained increasing attention among scholars and policymakers in the last several decades internationally. It is an analytical approach as well as a policy strategy and
environmental
A biophysical environment is a biotic and abiotic surrounding of an organism or population, and consequently includes the factors that have an influence in their survival, development, and evolution. A biophysical environment can vary in scale f ...
discourse (Hajer, 1995).
Origins and key elements
Ecological modernization emerged in the early 1980s within a group of scholars at Free University and the Social Science Research Centre in Berlin, among them
Joseph Huber, and . Various authors pursued similar ideas at the time, e.g.
Arthur H. Rosenfeld
Arthur Hinton Rosenfeld (June 22, 1926 – January 27, 2017) was a UC Berkeley physicist and California energy commissioner, dubbed the "Godfather of Energy Efficiency", for developing new standards which helped improve energy efficiency in Cali ...
,
Amory Lovins
Amory Bloch Lovins (born November 13, 1947) is an American writer, physicist, and former chairman/chief scientist of the Rocky Mountain Institute. He has written on energy policy and related areas for four decades, and served on the US Nationa ...
, Donald Huisingh, René Kemp, or
Ernst Ulrich von Weizsäcker
Ernst Ulrich von Weizsäcker (born 25 June 1939) is a German scientist and politician ( SPD). He was a member of the German Bundestag and served as co-president of the Club of Rome jointly with Anders Wijkman 2011 – 2019.
Family
A member of ...
. Further substantial contributions were made by
Arthur P.J. Mol,
Gert Spaargaren and
David A Sonnenfeld (Mol and Sonnenfeld, 2000; Mol, 2001).
One basic assumption of ecological modernization relates to environmental readaptation of economic growth and industrial development. On the basis of
enlightened self-interest
Enlightened self-interest is a philosophy in ethics which states that persons who act to further the interests of others (or the interests of the group or groups to which they belong), ultimately serve their own self-interest.
It has often been ...
, economy and ecology can be favourably combined: Environmental
productivity
Productivity is the efficiency of production of goods or services expressed by some measure. Measurements of productivity are often expressed as a ratio of an aggregate output to a single input or an aggregate input used in a production proces ...
, i.e. productive use of natural resources and environmental media (air, water, soil, ecosystems), can be a source of future growth and development in the same way as
labour productivity
Workforce productivity is the amount of goods and services that a group of workers produce in a given amount of time. It is one of several types of productivity that economists measure. Workforce productivity, often referred to as labor product ...
and capital productivity. This includes increases in energy and
resource efficiency Resource efficiency is the maximising of the supply of money, materials, staff, and other assets that can be drawn on by a person or organization in order to function effectively, with minimum wasted (natural) resource expenses. It means using the ...
as well as product and process innovations such as environmental management and sustainable
supply chain management,
clean technologies, benign substitution of hazardous substances, and product design for environment. Radical innovations in these fields can not only reduce quantities of resource turnover and emissions, but also change the quality or structure of the
industrial metabolism Industrial metabolism is a concept to describe the material and energy turnover of industrial systems. It was proposed by Robert Ayres in analogy to the biological metabolism as "the whole integrated collection of physical processes that convert ra ...
. In the co-evolution of humans and nature, and in order to upgrade the environment's
carrying capacity, ecological modernization gives humans an active role to play, which may entail conflicts with nature conservation.
There are different understandings of the scope of ecological modernization - whether it is just about techno-industrial progress and related aspects of policy and economy, and to what extent it also includes cultural aspects (ecological modernization of mind, value orientations, attitudes, behaviour and lifestyles). Similarly, there is some pluralism as to whether ecological modernization would need to rely mainly on government, or markets and entrepreneurship, or civil society, or some sort of
multi-level governance
Multi-level (or multilevel) governance is a term used to describe the way power is spread vertically between many levels of government and horizontally across multiple quasi-government and non-governmental organizations and actors. This situation ...
combining the three. Some scholars explicitly refer to general
modernization theory as well as non-Marxist
world-system theory
World-systems theory (also known as world-systems analysis or the world-systems perspective)Immanuel Wallerstein, (2004), "World-systems Analysis." In ''World System History'', ed. George Modelski, in ''Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems'' (E ...
, others don't.
Ultimately, however, there is a common understanding that ecological modernization will have to result in innovative structural change. So research is now still more focused on environmental innovations, or eco-innovations, and the interplay of various societal factors (scientific, economic, institutional, legal, political, cultural) which foster or hamper such innovations (Klemmer et al., 1999; Huber, 2004; Weber and Hemmelskamp, 2005; Olsthoorn and Wieczorek, 2006).
Ecological modernization shares a number of features with neighbouring, overlapping approaches. Among the most important are
*the concept of
sustainable development
*the approach of
industrial metabolism Industrial metabolism is a concept to describe the material and energy turnover of industrial systems. It was proposed by Robert Ayres in analogy to the biological metabolism as "the whole integrated collection of physical processes that convert ra ...
(
Ayres and
Simonis, 1994)
*the concept of
industrial ecology
Industrial ecology (IE) is the study of material and energy flows through industrial systems. The global industrial economy can be modelled as a network of industrial processes that extract resources from the Earth and transform those resource ...
(
Socolow, 1994)
Additional elements
A special topic of ecological modernization research during recent years was ''sustainable household'', i.e. environment-oriented reshaping of lifestyles, consumption patterns, and demand-pull control of supply chains (Vergragt, 2000; OECD 2002).
Some scholars of ecological modernization share an interest in
industrial symbiosis, i.e. inter-site recycling that helps to reduce the consumption of resources via increasing efficiency (i.e. pollution prevention, waste reduction), typically by taking externalities from one economic production process and using them as raw material inputs for another (Christoff, 1996).
Ecological modernization also relies on product life-cycle assessment and the analysis of materials and energy flows. In this context, ecological modernization promotes 'cradle to cradle' manufacturing (
Braungart and
McDonough
McDonough is an Irish surname.
Origins and variants
The surname is an Anglicized form of the Gaelic name "Mac Donnchadha", which means son of Donnchadh or son of Donough. The name itself consists of elements meaning "brown (donn)" or Donn “t ...
, 2002), contrasted against the usual 'cradle to grave' forms of manufacturing - where waste is not re-integrated back into the production process.
Another special interest in the ecological modernization literature has been the role of
social movements and the emergence of civil society as a key agent of change (
Fisher
Fisher is an archaic term for a fisherman, revived as gender-neutral.
Fisher, Fishers or The Fisher may also refer to:
Places
Australia
*Division of Fisher, an electoral district in the Australian House of Representatives, in Queensland
*Elect ...
and Freudenburg, 2001).
As a
strategy of change, some forms of ecological modernization may be favored by
business interests because they seemingly meet the triple bottom line of economics, society, and environment, which, it is held, underpin sustainability, yet do not challenge
free market
In economics, a free market is an economic system in which the prices of goods and services are determined by supply and demand expressed by sellers and buyers. Such markets, as modeled, operate without the intervention of government or any ot ...
principles. This contrasts with many
environmental movement
The environmental movement (sometimes referred to as the ecology movement), also including conservation and green politics, is a diverse philosophical, social, and political movement for addressing environmental issues. Environmentalists a ...
perspectives, which regard
free trade
Free trade is a trade policy that does not restrict imports or exports. It can also be understood as the free market idea applied to international trade. In government, free trade is predominantly advocated by political parties that hold econ ...
and its notion of business self-regulation as part of the problem, or even an origin of
environmental degradation. Under ecological modernization, the
state
State may refer to:
Arts, entertainment, and media Literature
* ''State Magazine'', a monthly magazine published by the U.S. Department of State
* ''The State'' (newspaper), a daily newspaper in Columbia, South Carolina, United States
* ''Our S ...
is seen in a variety of roles and capacities: as the enabler for
market
Market is a term used to describe concepts such as:
*Market (economics), system in which parties engage in transactions according to supply and demand
*Market economy
*Marketplace, a physical marketplace or public market
Geography
*Märket, an ...
s that help produce the technological advances via competition; as the regulatory (see
regulation
Regulation is the management of complex systems according to a set of rules and trends. In systems theory, these types of rules exist in various fields of biology and society, but the term has slightly different meanings according to context. Fo ...
) medium through which
corporation
A corporation is an organization—usually a group of people or a company—authorized by the state to act as a single entity (a legal entity recognized by private and public law "born out of statute"; a legal person in legal context) and ...
s are forced to 'take back' their various wastes and re-integrate them in some manner into the production of new goods and services (e.g. the way that
car corporations in Germany are required to accept back cars they manufactured once those vehicles have reached the end of their product lifespan); and in some cases as an institution that is incapable of addressing critical local, national, and global environmental problems. In the latter case, ecological modernization shares with
Ulrich Beck (1999, 37-40) and others notions of the necessity of emergence of new forms of
environmental governance
Environmental governance (EG) consist of a system of laws, norms, rules, policies and practices that dictate how the board members of an environment related regulatory body should manage and oversee the affairs of any environment related regu ...
, sometimes referred to as subpolitics or political modernization, where the
environmental movement
The environmental movement (sometimes referred to as the ecology movement), also including conservation and green politics, is a diverse philosophical, social, and political movement for addressing environmental issues. Environmentalists a ...
, community groups, businesses, and other stakeholders increasingly take on direct and leadership roles in stimulating environmental transformation. Political modernization of this sort requires certain supporting norms and institutions such as a free, independent, or at least critical press, basic
human rights
Human rights are moral principles or normsJames Nickel, with assistance from Thomas Pogge, M.B.E. Smith, and Leif Wenar, 13 December 2013, Stanford Encyclopedia of PhilosophyHuman Rights Retrieved 14 August 2014 for certain standards of hu ...
of expression, organization, and assembly, etc.
New media
New media describes communication technologies that enable or enhance interaction between users as well as interaction between users and content. In the middle of the 1990s, the phrase "new media" became widely used as part of a sales pitch for ...
such as the
Internet
The Internet (or internet) is the global system of interconnected computer networks that uses the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to communicate between networks and devices. It is a '' network of networks'' that consists of private, pub ...
greatly facilitate this.
Criticisms
Critics argue that ecological modernization will fail to protect
the environment
The natural environment or natural world encompasses all living and non-living things occurring naturally, meaning in this case not artificial. The term is most often applied to the Earth or some parts of Earth. This environment encompasses t ...
and does nothing to alter the impulses within the capitalist economic mode of production (see
capitalism
Capitalism is an economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and their operation for profit. Central characteristics of capitalism include capital accumulation, competitive markets, price system, priva ...
) that inevitably lead to environmental degradation (Foster, 2002). As such, it is just a form of '
green-washing'. Critics question whether
technological
Technology is the application of knowledge to reach practical goals in a specifiable and reproducible way. The word ''technology'' may also mean the product of such an endeavor. The use of technology is widely prevalent in medicine, science, ...
advances alone can achieve resource conservation and better
environmental protection
Environmental protection is the practice of protecting the natural environment by individuals, organizations and governments. Its objectives are to conserve natural resources and the existing natural environment and, where possible, to repair dam ...
, particularly if left to business
self-regulation practices (York and Rosa, 2003). For instance, many technological improvements are currently feasible but not widely utilized. The most
environmentally friendly product or manufacturing process (which is often also the most economically efficient) is not always the one automatically chosen by self-regulating corporations (e.g.
hydrogen
Hydrogen is the chemical element with the symbol H and atomic number 1. Hydrogen is the lightest element. At standard conditions hydrogen is a gas of diatomic molecules having the formula . It is colorless, odorless, tasteless, non-toxic ...
or
biofuel vs.
peak oil
Peak oil is the hypothetical point in time when the maximum rate of global oil production is reached, after which it is argued that production will begin an irreversible decline. It is related to the distinct concept of oil depletion; whil ...
). In addition, some critics have argued that ecological modernization does not redress gross
injustices that are produced within the capitalist system, such as
environmental racism
Environmental racism or ecological apartheid is a form of institutional racism leading to landfills, incinerators, and hazardous waste disposal being disproportionally placed in communities of colour. Internationally, it is also associated with ...
- where
people of color
The term "person of color" ( : people of color or persons of color; abbreviated POC) is primarily used to describe any person who is not considered "white". In its current meaning, the term originated in, and is primarily associated with, the U ...
and low income earners bear a disproportionate burden of environmental harm such as pollution, and lack access to environmental benefits such as
parks, and
social justice
Social justice is justice in terms of the distribution of wealth, Equal opportunity, opportunities, and Social privilege, privileges within a society. In Western Civilization, Western and Culture of Asia, Asian cultures, the concept of social ...
issues such as eliminating
unemployment
Unemployment, according to the OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development), is people above a specified age (usually 15) not being in paid employment or self-employment but currently available for work during the refere ...
(Bullard, 1993; Gleeson and Low, 1999; Harvey, 1996) -
environmental racism
Environmental racism or ecological apartheid is a form of institutional racism leading to landfills, incinerators, and hazardous waste disposal being disproportionally placed in communities of colour. Internationally, it is also associated with ...
is also referred to as issues of the asymmetric distribution of environmental resources and services (Everett & Neu, 2000). Moreover, the theory seems to have limited global efficacy, applying primarily to its countries of origin -
Germany
Germany,, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It is the second most populous country in Europe after Russia, and the most populous member state of the European Union. Germany is situated betwe ...
and the
Netherlands
)
, anthem = ( en, "William of Nassau")
, image_map =
, map_caption =
, subdivision_type = Sovereign state
, subdivision_name = Kingdom of the Netherlands
, established_title = Before independence
, established_date = Spanish Netherl ...
, and having little to say about the
developing world (Fisher and Freudenburg, 2001). Perhaps the harshest criticism though, is that ecological modernization is predicated upon the notion of '
sustainable growth
Sustainable development is an organizing principle for meeting human development goals while also sustaining the ability of natural systems to provide the natural resources and ecosystem services on which the economy and society depend. The desi ...
', and in reality this is not possible because growth entails the consumption of natural and human capital at great costs to
ecosystem
An ecosystem (or ecological system) consists of all the organisms and the physical environment with which they interact. These biotic and abiotic components are linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows. Energy enters the syste ...
s and societies.
Ecological modernization, its effectiveness and applicability, strengths and limitations, remains a dynamic and contentious area of environmental social science research and policy discourse in the early 21st century.
See also
*
Bright green environmentalism
Bright green environmentalism is an ideology based on the belief that the convergence of technological change and social innovation provides the most successful path to sustainable development.
Origin and evolution of bright green thinking
The te ...
*
Ecological design
Ecological design or ecodesign is an approach to designing products and services that gives special consideration to the environmental impacts of a product over its entire lifecycle. Sim Van der Ryn and Stuart Cowan define it as "any form of des ...
*
Ecological civilization Ecological civilization is the hypothetical concept that describes the alleged final goal of social and environmental reform within a given society. It implies that the changes required in response to global climate disruption and social injustices ...
*
Ecomodernism
Ecomodernism is an environmental philosophy which argues that technological development can protect nature and improve human wellbeing through eco-economic decoupling, i.e., by separating economic growth from environmental impacts.
Descript ...
*
Environmental sociology
Environmental sociology is the study of interactions between societies and their natural environment. The field emphasizes the social factors that influence environmental resource management and cause environmental issues, the processes by whic ...
*
Reflexive modernization
The concept of reflexive modernization or reflexive modernity was launched by a joint effort of three of the leading European sociologists: Anthony Giddens, Ulrich Beck and Scott Lash. The introduction of this concept served a double purpose: to ...
*
Restoration ecology
*
Sustainable development
References
*Ayres, R. U. and Simonis, U. E., 1994, ''Industrial Metabolism. Restructuring for Sustainable Development'', Tokyo, UN University Press.
*Beck, U., 1999, ''World Risk Society'', Cambridge, UK, Polity Press, .
*Braungart, M., and McDonough, W., 2002, ''Cradle to Cradle. Remaking the way we make things'', New York, N.Y., North Point Press.
*
*Bullard, R., (ed.) 1993, ''Confronting Environmental Racism: Voices from the Grassroots'', Boston, South End Press.
*Dickens, P. 2004, ''Society & Nature: Changing Our Environment, Changing Ourselves'', Cambridge, UK, Polity, .
*Everett, J., and Neu, D., 2000, "Ecological Modernization and the Limits of Environmental Accounting?", ''Accounting Forum,'' 24(1), pp. 5–29.
*Fisher, D.R., and Freudenburg, W.R., 2001,
Ecological modernization and its critics: Assessing the past and looking toward the future, ''Society and Natural Resources'', 14, pp. 701–709.
*Foster, J.B., 2002, ''Ecology Against Capitalism'', New York, Monthly Review Press.
*Gleeson, B. and Low, N. (eds.) 1999, ''Global Ethics and Environment'', London, Routledge.
*Hajer, M.A., 1995, ''The Politics of Environmental Discourse: Ecological Modernization and the Policy Process'', Oxford, UK, Oxford University Press, .
*Harvey, D., 1996, ''Justice, Nature and the Geography of Difference'', Malden, Ma., Blackwell, p. 377-402.
*Huber, J., 2004, ''New Technologies and Environmental Innovation'', Cheltenham, UK, Edward Elgar.
*Klemmer, P., et al., 1999, ''Environmental Innovations. Incentives and Barriers'', Berlin, Analytica.
*Mol, A.P.J., 2001, ''Globalization and Environmental Reform: The Ecological Modernization of the Global Economy'', Cambridge, Ma., MIT Press, .
*Mol, A.P.J., and Sonnenfeld, D.A., (eds.) 2000, ''Ecological Modernisation around the World: Perspectives and Critical Debates'', London and Portland, OR, Frank Cass/ Routledge, .
*Mol, A.P.J., Sonnenfeld, D.A., and Spaargaren, G., (eds.) 2009, ''The Ecological Modernisation Reader: Environmental Reform in Theory and Practice'', London and New York, Routledge, hardback, paperback.
*OECD (ed.), ''Towards Sustainable Household Consumption?'' Trends and Policies in OECD Countries, Paris, OECD Publ., 2002.
*Olsthoorn, X., and Wieczorek, A., (eds.) 2006, ''Understanding Industrial Transformation. Views from Different Disciplines'', Dordrecht: Springer.
*Redclift, M. R., and Woodgate, G. (eds.) 1997, ''The International Handbook of Environmental Sociology'', Cheltenham, UK, Edward Elgar, .
*Redclift, M. R., and Woodgate, G., (eds.) 2005, ''New Developments in Environmental Sociology'', Cheltenham, Edward Elgar, .
*Socolow, R. et al., (eds.) 1994, ''Industrial Ecology and Global Change'', Cambridge University Press.
*
*Vergragt, Ph., ''Strategies Towards the Sustainable Household'', SusHouse Project Final Report, Delft University of Technology, NL, 2000.
*
*
{{Navboxes
, list=
{{Environmental social science
{{Globalization, state=autocollapse
{{Industrial ecology
{{Sustainability
Environmental sociology
Environmental social science concepts
Environmental policy
Industrial ecology
Global ethics
Modernity