The Abenaki (
Abenaki
The Abenaki (Abenaki: ''Wαpánahki'') are an Indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands of Canada and the United States. They are an Algonquian-speaking people and part of the Wabanaki Confederacy. The Eastern Abenaki language was predom ...
: ''Wαpánahki'') are an
Indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands
Indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands include Native American tribes and First Nation bands residing in or originating from a cultural area encompassing the northeastern and Midwest United States and southeastern Canada. It is part ...
of
Canada
Canada is a country in North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, covering over , making it the world's second-largest country by tot ...
and the
United States
The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territorie ...
. They are an
Algonquian-speaking people and part of the
Wabanaki Confederacy
The Wabanaki Confederacy (''Wabenaki, Wobanaki'', translated to "People of the Dawn" or "Easterner") is a North American First Nations and Native American confederation of four principal Eastern Algonquian nations: the Miꞌkmaq, Maliseet ( ...
. The
Eastern Abenaki language
Abenaki (''Eastern: Alənαpαtəwéwαkan, Western: Alnôbaôdwawôgan'') is an endangered Algonquian language of Quebec and the northern states of New England. The language has Eastern and Western forms which differ in vocabulary and phonolog ...
was predominantly spoken in
Maine
Maine () is a state in the New England and Northeastern regions of the United States. It borders New Hampshire to the west, the Gulf of Maine to the southeast, and the Canadian provinces of New Brunswick and Quebec to the northeast and north ...
, while the
Western Abenaki language
Abenaki (''Eastern: Alənαpαtəwéwαkan, Western: Alnôbaôdwawôgan'') is an endangered Algonquian language of Quebec and the northern states of New England. The language has Eastern and Western forms which differ in vocabulary and phonolog ...
was spoken in
Quebec
Quebec ( ; )According to the Canadian government, ''Québec'' (with the acute accent) is the official name in Canadian French and ''Quebec'' (without the accent) is the province's official name in Canadian English is one of the thirtee ...
,
Vermont
Vermont () is a state in the northeast New England region of the United States. Vermont is bordered by the states of Massachusetts to the south, New Hampshire to the east, and New York to the west, and the Canadian province of Quebec to ...
, and
New Hampshire
New Hampshire is a U.S. state, state in the New England region of the northeastern United States. It is bordered by Massachusetts to the south, Vermont to the west, Maine and the Gulf of Maine to the east, and the Canadian province of Quebec t ...
.
While Abenaki peoples have shared cultural traits, they did not historically have a centralized government.
They came together as a post-contact community after their original tribes were decimated by colonization, disease, and warfare.
Names
The word ''Abenaki'' and its
syncope, ''Abnaki,'' are both derived from ''Wabanaki'', or ''Wôbanakiak,'' meaning "People of the Dawn Land" in the
Abenaki language
Abenaki (''Eastern: Alənαpαtəwéwαkan, Western: Alnôbaôdwawôgan'') is an endangered Algonquian language of Quebec and the northern states of New England. The language has Eastern and Western forms which differ in vocabulary and phonolog ...
.
While the two terms are often confused, the Abenaki are one of several tribes in the
Wabanaki Confederacy
The Wabanaki Confederacy (''Wabenaki, Wobanaki'', translated to "People of the Dawn" or "Easterner") is a North American First Nations and Native American confederation of four principal Eastern Algonquian nations: the Miꞌkmaq, Maliseet ( ...
.
The name is spelled several ways including Abnaki, Abinaki, and Alnôbak.
''Wôbanakiak'' is derived from ''wôban'' ("dawn" or "east") and ''aki'' ("land") (compare
Proto-Algonquian
Proto-Algonquian (commonly abbreviated PA) is the proto-language from which the various Algonquian languages are descended. It is generally estimated to have been spoken around 2,500 to 3,000 years ago, but there is less agreement on where it was ...
''*wa·pan'' and ''*axkyi'') — the aboriginal name of the area broadly corresponding to
New England
New England is a region comprising six states in the Northeastern United States: Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont. It is bordered by the state of New York to the west and by the Canadian provinces ...
and
the Maritimes
The Maritimes, also called the Maritime provinces, is a region of Eastern Canada consisting of three provinces: New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island. The Maritimes had a population of 1,899,324 in 2021, which makes up 5.1% of Ca ...
. It is sometimes used to refer to all the Algonquian-speaking peoples of the area—Western Abenaki, Eastern Abenaki,
Wolastoqiyik
The Wəlastəkwewiyik, or Maliseet (, also spelled Malecite), are an Algonquian-speaking First Nation of the Wabanaki Confederacy. They are the indigenous people of the Wolastoq ( Saint John River) valley and its tributaries. Their territory ...
-
Passamaquoddy
The Passamaquoddy ( Maliseet-Passamaquoddy: ''Peskotomuhkati'') are a Native American/First Nations people who live in northeastern North America. Their traditional homeland, Peskotomuhkatik'','' straddles the Canadian province of New Brunswick ...
, and
Miꞌkmaq
The Mi'kmaq (also ''Mi'gmaq'', ''Lnu'', ''Miꞌkmaw'' or ''Miꞌgmaw''; ; ) are a First Nations people of the Northeastern Woodlands, indigenous to the areas of Canada's Atlantic Provinces and the Gaspé Peninsula of Quebec as well as the nort ...
—as a single group.
The Abenaki people also call themselves ''Alnôbak'', meaning "Real People" (c.f.,
Lenape language
The Delaware languages, also known as the Lenape languages ( del, Lënapei èlixsuwakàn), are Munsee language, Munsee and Unami language, Unami, two closely related languages of the Eastern Algonquian languages, Eastern Algonquian subgroup of ...
: ''
Lenape
The Lenape (, , or Lenape , del, Lënapeyok) also called the Leni Lenape, Lenni Lenape and Delaware people, are an indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands, who live in the United States and Canada. Their historical territory includ ...
k'') and by the
autonym
Autonym may refer to:
* Autonym, the name used by a person to refer to themselves or their language; see Exonym and endonym
* Autonym (botany), an automatically created infrageneric or infraspecific name
See also
* Nominotypical subspecies, in zo ...
''Alnanbal,'' meaning "men".
Historically, ethnologists have classified the Abenaki by geographic groups: ''Western Abenaki'' and ''Eastern Abenaki''. Within these groups are the Abenaki bands:
Western Abenaki
![Wohngebiet Westlicheabenaki](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/Wohngebiet_Westlicheabenaki.png)
* ''
Arsigantegok
The Androscoggin (Arosaguntacook, etc., see names) were an Abenaki people from what are now the U.S. states of Maine and New Hampshire. By the 18th century, they were absorbed by neighboring tribes.
Name
Arosaguntacook or Arossagunticook, the t ...
'' (also ''Arrasaguntacook'', ''Ersegontegog'', ''Assagunticook'', ''Anasaguntacook''), lived along the
St. Francis River in Québec. Principal village: St. Francis (
Odanak
Odanak is an Abenaki First Nations reserve in the Central Quebec region, Quebec, Canada. The mostly First Nations population as of the Canada 2021 Census was 481. The territory is located near the mouth of the Saint-François River at its confluenc ...
). The people were referred to as ''St. Francis River Abenakis,'' and this term gradually was applied to all Western Abenaki.
* ''
Cowasuck
The Cowasuck, also known as Cowass, was an Algonquian-speaking Native American tribe in northeastern North America, linguistically and culturally belonging to the Western Abenaki as well as being members of the Abenaki Confederation. Today, t ...
'' (also ''Cohass, Cohasiac, Koasek, Koasek, Coos'' – "People of the Pines"), lived in the upper
Connecticut River
The Connecticut River is the longest river in the New England region of the United States, flowing roughly southward for through four states. It rises 300 yards (270 m) south of the U.S. border with Quebec, Canada, and discharges at Long Island ...
Valley. Principal village: ''Cowass'', near
Newbury, Vermont.
* ''
Missiquoi
The Missiquoi (or the Missisquoi or the Sokoki) were a historic band of Abenaki Indigenous peoples of the Americas, Indigenous peoples from present-day southern Quebec and formerly northern Vermont. This Algonquian peoples, Algonquian-speaking g ...
'' (also ''Masipskwoik'', ''Mazipskikskoik'', ''Missique'', ''Misiskuoi'', ''Missisco'', ''Missiassik'' – "People of the Flint"), also known as the Sokoki. They lived in the
Missisquoi Valley, from
Lake Champlain
, native_name_lang =
, image = Champlainmap.svg
, caption = Lake Champlain-River Richelieu watershed
, image_bathymetry =
, caption_bathymetry =
, location = New York/Vermont in the United States; and Quebec in Canada
, coords =
, type =
, ...
to the headwaters. Principal village around
Swanton, Vermont.
** ''
Sokoki
The Missiquoi (or the Missisquoi or the Sokoki) were a historic band of Abenaki Indigenous peoples from present-day southern Quebec and formerly northern Vermont. This Algonquian-speaking group lived along the eastern shore of Lake Champlain at ...
'' (also ''Sokwaki'', ''Squakheag'', ''Socoquis'', ''Sokoquius'', ''Zooquagese'', ''Soquachjck'', ''Onejagese'' – "People Who Separated"), lived in the Middle and Upper Connecticut River Valley. Principal villages: ''Squakheag'',
Northfield, Massachusetts
Northfield is a New England town, town in Franklin County, Massachusetts, Franklin County, Massachusetts, United States. Northfield was first settled in 1673. The population was 2,866 at the 2020 census. It is part of the Springfield, Massachusetts ...
, and Fort Hill.
* ''
Pennacook
The Pennacook, also known by the names Penacook and Pennacock, were an Algonquian-speaking Indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands who lived in Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and southern Maine. They were not a united tribe but a netwo ...
'' (also ''Penacook'', ''Penikoke'', ''Openango''), lived in the
Merrimack Valley
The Merrimack Valley is a bi-state region along the Merrimack River in the U.S. states of New Hampshire and Massachusetts. The Merrimack is one of the larger waterways in New England and has helped to define the livelihood and culture of those l ...
, therefore sometimes called ''Merrimack''. Principal village
Penacook, New Hampshire
Penacook, originally called "Fisherville", is a village within the city of Concord in Merrimack County, New Hampshire, United States. It lies along Concord's northern border with Boscawen. The name comes from the Pennacook tribe that lived in the ...
. The Pennacook were once a large confederacy who were politically distinct and competitive with their northern Abenaki neighbors.
Smaller tribes:
* ''
Amoskeay''
* ''
Cocheco
Dover is a city in Strafford County, New Hampshire, United States. The population was 32,741 at the 2020 United States Census, 2020 census, making it the largest city in the New Hampshire Seacoast Region (New Hampshire), Seacoast region and the fi ...
''
* ''
Nashua Nashua may refer to:
* Nashaway people, Native American tribe living in 17th-century New England
Places
In Australia:
* Nashua, New South Wales
In the United States:
* Nashua, California
* Nashua, Iowa
* Nashua, Minnesota
* Nashua, Kansas City ...
''
* ''
Ossipee
Ossipee is a town in Carroll County, New Hampshire, United States. The population was 4,372 at the 2020 census. It is the county seat of Carroll County. Ossipee, which includes several villages, is a resort area and home to part of Pine River S ...
'', lived along the shores of
Ossipee Lake in east-central New Hampshire. Often classed as ''Eastern Abenaki''.
* ''
Pemigewasset''
* ''
Piscataqua Piscataqua, believed to be an Abenaki word meaning ''rapid waters'', may refer to:
* Piscataqua River, a fast-moving estuarine river dividing coastal New Hampshire and Maine in the United States
* Piscataqua River (Presumpscot River), a tributary ...
''
* ''
Souhegan''
* ''
Winnipesaukee
Lake Winnipesaukee () is the largest lake in the U.S. state of New Hampshire, located in the Lakes Region at the foothills of the White Mountains. It is approximately long (northwest-southeast) and from wide (northeast-southwest), covering & ...
'' (also ''Winnibisauga'', ''Wioninebeseck'', ''Winninebesakik'' – "region of the land around lakes"), lived along the shores of
Lake Winnipesaukee
Lake Winnipesaukee () is the largest lake in the U.S. state of New Hampshire, located in the Lakes Region at the foothills of the White Mountains. It is approximately long (northwest-southeast) and from wide (northeast-southwest), covering & ...
, New Hampshire.
Wabanaki Nation
* ''
Odanak
Odanak is an Abenaki First Nations reserve in the Central Quebec region, Quebec, Canada. The mostly First Nations population as of the Canada 2021 Census was 481. The territory is located near the mouth of the Saint-François River at its confluenc ...
'' (also known as ''
Pierreville,
MRC Nicolet-Yamaska''), lived southwest of
Trois-Rivières
Trois-Rivières (, – 'Three Rivers') is a city in the Mauricie administrative region of Quebec, Canada, at the confluence of the Saint-Maurice River, Saint-Maurice and Saint Lawrence River, Saint Lawrence rivers, on the north shore of the Sain ...
,
Centre-du-Québec
Centre-du-Québec (, ''Central Quebec'') is a region of Quebec, Canada. The main centres are Drummondville, Victoriaville, and Bécancour. It has a land area of and a 2016 Census population of 242,399 inhabitants.
Description
The Centre-du- ...
, and included settlements along the
St. Francois River and
Magog River
The Magog River, or Sekosonotek in Abenaki, is a river that drains Lake Memphremagog. It is a small river running through the territories of the cities of Magog and Sherbrooke, in the administrative region of Estrie, in Quebec, in Canada, along a ...
.
* ''
Wôlinak
Wôlinak is an Abenaki First Nations reserve in the Centre-du-Québec region, Quebec, Canada. An enclave within the city of Bécancour, it was one of the Seven Nations of Canada.
History
Around 1600, a few Abenaki families and Sokokis famili ...
'' (also ''
Becancour'',
MRC Becancour), lived around Trois-Rivières, Centre-du-Québec, and included settlements along the
Bécancour River
The Bécancour River is a river flowing in the administrative region of Centre-du-Québec, in Quebec, Canada.
Geography
The Bécancour takes its source from the lake of the same name in the town of Thetford Mines, in the Chaudière-Appalach ...
.
Eastern Abenaki
![Wohngebiet Oestlicheabenaki](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Wohngebiet_Oestlicheabenaki.png)
* ''
Androscoggin'' (also ''Alessikantekw'', ''Arosaguntacock'', ''Amariscoggin''), lived in the Androscoggin Valley and along the
St. Francis River, therefore often called ''St. Francis River Abenaki''.
* ''
Kennebec'' (also ''Kinipekw'', ''Kennebeck'', ''Caniba'', later known as ''
Norridgewock
Norridgewock was the name of both an Indigenous village and a band of the Abenaki ("People of the Dawn") Native Americans/First Nations, an Eastern Algonquian tribe of the United States and Canada. The French of New France called the village Ke ...
''), lived in the Kennebec River Valley in northern Maine. Principal village: Norridgewock (Naridgewalk, Neridgewok, Noronjawoke); other villages: Amaseconti (Amesokanti, Anmissoukanti), Kennebec, and Sagadahoc.
* ''
Penobscot
The Penobscot (Abenaki: ''Pαnawάhpskewi'') are an Indigenous people in North America from the Northeastern Woodlands region. They are organized as a federally recognized tribe in Maine and as a First Nations band government in the Atlantic pr ...
'' (also ''Panawahpskek'', ''Pamnaouamske'', ''Pentagouet''), lived in the
Penobscot Valley. Principal villages: ''Penobscot (Pentagouet),'' now Indian Island,
''Old Town'', Maine; other villages: Agguncia, Asnela, Catawamtek,
Kenduskeag,
Mattawamkeag, Meecombe, Negas, Olamon,
Passadumkeag, Precaute, Segocket, and Wabigganus. Now a separate
federally recognized tribe
This is a list of federally recognized tribes in the contiguous United States of America. There are also federally recognized Alaska Native tribes. , 574 Indian tribes were legally recognized by the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) of the United ...
.
* ''
Pequawket
The Pequawket (also Pigwacket and many other spelling variants, from Eastern Abenaki
The Abenaki (Abenaki: ''Wαpánahki'') are an Indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands of Canada and the United States. They are an Algonquian-spea ...
'' (also ''Pigwacket'', ''Pequaki''), lived along the
Saco River
The Saco River (Abenaki language, Abenaki: ''Sαkóhki'') is a river in northeastern New Hampshire and southwestern Maine in the United States. It drains a rural area of of forests and farmlands west and southwest of Portland, Maine, Portland ...
and in the
White Mountains. Principal village ''Pigwacket'' was located on the upper Saco River near present-day
Fryeburg, Maine
Fryeburg is a town in Oxford County, Maine, United States. The population was 3,369 at the 2020 census. Fryeburg is home to Fryeburg Academy, a semi-private preparatory school, and the International Musical Arts Institute. The town is also s ...
. Occupied an intermediate location, therefore sometimes classed as ''Western Abenaki''.
Smaller tribes:
* ''
Apikwahki''
* ''
Amaseconti'', lived between the upper
Kennebec and
Androscoggin rivers in western
Maine
Maine () is a state in the New England and Northeastern regions of the United States. It borders New Hampshire to the west, the Gulf of Maine to the southeast, and the Canadian provinces of New Brunswick and Quebec to the northeast and north ...
.
* ''
Kwupahag'' (also ''Kwapahag'')
* ''
Ossipee
Ossipee is a town in Carroll County, New Hampshire, United States. The population was 4,372 at the 2020 census. It is the county seat of Carroll County. Ossipee, which includes several villages, is a resort area and home to part of Pine River S ...
'', lived along the shores of Ossipee Lake in east-central New Hampshire. Sometimes classed as ''Western Abenaki''.
* ''
Rocameca'', lived along the upper
Androscoggin River
The Androscoggin River ( Abenaki: ''Aləssíkαntekʷ'') is a river in the U.S. states of Maine and New Hampshire, in northern New England. It is U.S. Geological Survey. National Hydrography Dataset high-resolution flowline dataThe National Map, ...
, near
Canton, Maine
Canton is a town in Oxford County, Maine, United States. The population was 1,125 at the 2020 census. Located beside Lake Anasagunticook, Canton is a summer recreational area.
History
Canton Point was the site of Rockemeka, village of the Ana ...
.
* ''
Wawinak'' (also ''Ouanwinak, Sheepscot, Wawenock, Wawnock, Wewenoc''), lived in the coastal areas of
southern Maine
Southern Maine Coast is a region of the U.S. state of Maine. It commonly includes the coastal areas of York County and Cumberland County. Some notable towns are Biddeford, Kittery, York, Wells, Ogunquit, Kennebunk, Kennebunkport, Saco, Old Or ...
.
Maliseet and Passamaquoddy:
* ''
Maliseet
The Wəlastəkwewiyik, or Maliseet (, also spelled Malecite), are an Algonquian-speaking First Nation of the Wabanaki Confederacy. They are the indigenous people of the Wolastoq ( Saint John River) valley and its tributaries. Their territory ...
'' (also ''Wolastoqiyik'', ''Walastekwyk'', ''Malecite''), lived in the inland of upper Maine and middle
New Brunswick
New Brunswick (french: Nouveau-Brunswick, , locally ) is one of the thirteen provinces and territories of Canada. It is one of the three Maritime provinces and one of the four Atlantic provinces. It is the only province with both English and ...
along the
St. John River. Principal villages: Meductic, Aukpaque. Now a separate
federally recognized tribe
This is a list of federally recognized tribes in the contiguous United States of America. There are also federally recognized Alaska Native tribes. , 574 Indian tribes were legally recognized by the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) of the United ...
.
* ''
Passamaquoddy
The Passamaquoddy ( Maliseet-Passamaquoddy: ''Peskotomuhkati'') are a Native American/First Nations people who live in northeastern North America. Their traditional homeland, Peskotomuhkatik'','' straddles the Canadian province of New Brunswick ...
'' (also ''Peskotomuhktati'', ''Pestomuhkati''), lived on the
Passamaquoddy Bay
Passamaquoddy Bay (french: Baie de Passamaquoddy) is an inlet of the Bay of Fundy, between the U.S. state of Maine and the Canadian province of New Brunswick, at the mouth of the St. Croix River. Most of the bay lies within Canada, with its w ...
coast and inland, between the St. John,
St. Croix
Saint Croix; nl, Sint-Kruis; french: link=no, Sainte-Croix; Danish and no, Sankt Croix, Taino: ''Ay Ay'' ( ) is an island in the Caribbean Sea, and a county and constituent district of the United States Virgin Islands (USVI), an unincor ...
and
Penobscot
The Penobscot (Abenaki: ''Pαnawάhpskewi'') are an Indigenous people in North America from the Northeastern Woodlands region. They are organized as a federally recognized tribe in Maine and as a First Nations band government in the Atlantic pr ...
rivers, in present-day Maine and New Brunswick. Principal village:
Machias. Now a separate
federally recognized tribe
This is a list of federally recognized tribes in the contiguous United States of America. There are also federally recognized Alaska Native tribes. , 574 Indian tribes were legally recognized by the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) of the United ...
.
Location
![Wabanaki wigwam with birch bark covering](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/Wabanaki_wigwam_with_birch_bark_covering.jpg)
The homeland of the Abenaki, which they call ''Ndakinna'' (Our Land), extended across most of what is now northern
New England
New England is a region comprising six states in the Northeastern United States: Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont. It is bordered by the state of New York to the west and by the Canadian provinces ...
, southern
Quebec
Quebec ( ; )According to the Canadian government, ''Québec'' (with the acute accent) is the official name in Canadian French and ''Quebec'' (without the accent) is the province's official name in Canadian English is one of the thirtee ...
, and the southern
Canadian Maritimes. The Eastern Abenaki population was concentrated in portions of
New Brunswick
New Brunswick (french: Nouveau-Brunswick, , locally ) is one of the thirteen provinces and territories of Canada. It is one of the three Maritime provinces and one of the four Atlantic provinces. It is the only province with both English and ...
and
Maine
Maine () is a state in the New England and Northeastern regions of the United States. It borders New Hampshire to the west, the Gulf of Maine to the southeast, and the Canadian provinces of New Brunswick and Quebec to the northeast and north ...
east of
New Hampshire
New Hampshire is a U.S. state, state in the New England region of the northeastern United States. It is bordered by Massachusetts to the south, Vermont to the west, Maine and the Gulf of Maine to the east, and the Canadian province of Quebec t ...
's
White Mountains. The other major tribe, the Western Abenaki, lived in the
Connecticut River
The Connecticut River is the longest river in the New England region of the United States, flowing roughly southward for through four states. It rises 300 yards (270 m) south of the U.S. border with Quebec, Canada, and discharges at Long Island ...
valley in Vermont, New Hampshire, and Massachusetts. The Missiquoi lived along the eastern shore of
Lake Champlain
, native_name_lang =
, image = Champlainmap.svg
, caption = Lake Champlain-River Richelieu watershed
, image_bathymetry =
, caption_bathymetry =
, location = New York/Vermont in the United States; and Quebec in Canada
, coords =
, type =
, ...
. The
Pennacook
The Pennacook, also known by the names Penacook and Pennacock, were an Algonquian-speaking Indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands who lived in Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and southern Maine. They were not a united tribe but a netwo ...
lived along the
Merrimack River
The Merrimack River (or Merrimac River, an occasional earlier spelling) is a river in the northeastern United States. It rises at the confluence of the Pemigewasset and Winnipesaukee rivers in Franklin, New Hampshire, flows southward into Mas ...
in southern New Hampshire. The maritime Abenaki lived around the
St. Croix
Saint Croix; nl, Sint-Kruis; french: link=no, Sainte-Croix; Danish and no, Sankt Croix, Taino: ''Ay Ay'' ( ) is an island in the Caribbean Sea, and a county and constituent district of the United States Virgin Islands (USVI), an unincor ...
and
Wolastoq (Saint John River) valleys near the boundary line between Maine and
New Brunswick
New Brunswick (french: Nouveau-Brunswick, , locally ) is one of the thirteen provinces and territories of Canada. It is one of the three Maritime provinces and one of the four Atlantic provinces. It is the only province with both English and ...
.
English colonial settlement in New England and frequent conflicts led many Abenaki to migrate to
Quebec
Quebec ( ; )According to the Canadian government, ''Québec'' (with the acute accent) is the official name in Canadian French and ''Quebec'' (without the accent) is the province's official name in Canadian English is one of the thirtee ...
. The Abenaki settled in the
Sillery region of Quebec between 1676 and 1680, and subsequently, for about twenty years, lived on the banks of the
Chaudière River
The Chaudière River (French for "Cauldron" or "Boiler"; Abenaki: Kik8ntekw) is a river with its source near the Town of Lac-Mégantic, in southeast Quebec, Canada. From its source Lake Mégantic in the Estrie region, it runs northwards to flo ...
near the falls, before settling in
Odanak
Odanak is an Abenaki First Nations reserve in the Central Quebec region, Quebec, Canada. The mostly First Nations population as of the Canada 2021 Census was 481. The territory is located near the mouth of the Saint-François River at its confluenc ...
and
Wôlinak
Wôlinak is an Abenaki First Nations reserve in the Centre-du-Québec region, Quebec, Canada. An enclave within the city of Bécancour, it was one of the Seven Nations of Canada.
History
Around 1600, a few Abenaki families and Sokokis famili ...
in the early eighteenth century.
In those days, the Abenaki practiced a
subsistence economy
A subsistence economy is an economy directed to basic subsistence (the provision of food, clothing, shelter) rather than to the market. Henceforth, "subsistence" is understood as supporting oneself at a minimum level. Often, the subsistence econo ...
based on hunting, fishing, trapping, berry picking and on growing corn, beans, squash, potatoes and tobacco. They also produced baskets, made of ash and sweet grass, for picking wild berries, and boiled
maple sap
Maple syrup is a syrup made from the sap of maple trees. In cold climates, these trees store starch in their trunks and roots before winter; the starch is then converted to sugar that rises in the sap in late winter and early spring. Maple tre ...
to make syrup. Basket weaving remains a traditional activity for members of both communities.
During the Anglo-French wars, the Abenaki were allies of France, having been displaced from Ndakinna by immigrating English settlers. An anecdote from the period tells the story of a Maliseet war chief named
Nescambuit or
Assacumbuit, who killed more than 140 enemies of
King Louis XIV of France
, house = Bourbon
, father = Louis XIII
, mother = Anne of Austria
, birth_date =
, birth_place = Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, Saint-Germain-en-Laye, France
, death_date =
, death_place = Palace of Ve ...
and received the rank of knight. Not all Abenaki natives fought on the side of the French, however; many remained on their native lands in the northern colonies. Much of the trapping was done by the people and traded to the English colonists for durable goods. These contributions by Native American Abenaki peoples went largely unreported.
Two tribal communities formed in Canada, one once known as
Saint-Francois-du-lac near Pierreville, Quebec (now called Odanak, Abenaki for "coming home"), and the other near
Bécancour (now known as Wôlinak) on the south shore of the
Saint Lawrence River
The St. Lawrence River (french: Fleuve Saint-Laurent, ) is a large river in the middle latitudes of North America. Its headwaters begin flowing from Lake Ontario in a (roughly) northeasterly direction, into the Gulf of St. Lawrence, connectin ...
, directly across the river from
Trois-Rivières
Trois-Rivières (, – 'Three Rivers') is a city in the Mauricie administrative region of Quebec, Canada, at the confluence of the Saint-Maurice River, Saint-Maurice and Saint Lawrence River, Saint Lawrence rivers, on the north shore of the Sain ...
. These two Abenaki reserves continue to grow and develop. Since the year 2000, the total Abenaki population (on and off reserve) has doubled to 2,101 members in 2011. Approximately 400 Abenaki reside on these two reserves, which cover a total area of less than . The unrecognized majority are off-reserve members, living in various cities and towns across Canada and the United States.
There are about 3,200 Abenaki living in Vermont and New Hampshire, without reservations, chiefly around
Lake Champlain
, native_name_lang =
, image = Champlainmap.svg
, caption = Lake Champlain-River Richelieu watershed
, image_bathymetry =
, caption_bathymetry =
, location = New York/Vermont in the United States; and Quebec in Canada
, coords =
, type =
, ...
. The remaining Abenaki people live in multi-racial towns and cities across Canada and the US, mainly in Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, and northern New England.
In December 2012, the Nulhegan Band of the Coosuk Abenaki Nation created a tribal forest in the town of
Barton, Vermont. This forest was established with assistance from the Vermont Sierra Club and the Vermont Land Trust. It contains a hunting camp and maple sugaring facilities that are administered cooperatively by the Nulhegan. The forest contains . The Missiquoi Abenaki Tribe owns forest land in the town of
Brunswick, Vermont
Brunswick is a town in Essex County, Vermont, United States. The town was named after Prince Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand of Brunswick-Lunenburg. The population was 88 at the 2020 census. It is part of the Berlin, NH–VT Micropolitan Statist ...
, centered around the Brunswick Springs. These springs are believed to be a sacred Abenaki site.
Language
The Abenaki language is closely related to the
Panawahpskek (Penobscot) language. Other neighboring Wabanaki tribes, the
Pestomuhkati (Passamaquoddy),
Wolastoqiyik (Maliseet), and
Miꞌkmaq
The Mi'kmaq (also ''Mi'gmaq'', ''Lnu'', ''Miꞌkmaw'' or ''Miꞌgmaw''; ; ) are a First Nations people of the Northeastern Woodlands, indigenous to the areas of Canada's Atlantic Provinces and the Gaspé Peninsula of Quebec as well as the nort ...
, and other
Eastern Algonquian languages
The Eastern Algonquian languages constitute a subgroup of the Algonquian languages. Prior to European contact, Eastern Algonquian consisted of at least 17 languages, whose speakers collectively occupied the Atlantic coast of North America and adj ...
share many linguistic similarities. It has come close to extinction as a spoken language. Tribal members are working to revive the Abenaki language at Odanak (means "in the village"), a First Nations Abenaki reserve near
Pierreville, Quebec
Pierreville () is a municipality in Nicolet-Yamaska Regional County Municipality, Quebec, located at the confluence of the Saint Lawrence and Saint-François rivers, at the edge of Lac Saint-Pierre. The population as of the Canada 2011 Census w ...
, and throughout
New Hampshire
New Hampshire is a U.S. state, state in the New England region of the northeastern United States. It is bordered by Massachusetts to the south, Vermont to the west, Maine and the Gulf of Maine to the east, and the Canadian province of Quebec t ...
,
Vermont
Vermont () is a state in the northeast New England region of the United States. Vermont is bordered by the states of Massachusetts to the south, New Hampshire to the east, and New York to the west, and the Canadian province of Quebec to ...
, and
New York
New York most commonly refers to:
* New York City, the most populous city in the United States, located in the state of New York
* New York (state), a state in the northeastern United States
New York may also refer to:
Film and television
* '' ...
state.
The language is
polysynthetic
In linguistic typology, polysynthetic languages, formerly holophrastic languages, are highly synthetic languages, i.e. languages in which words are composed of many morphemes (word parts that have independent meaning but may or may not be able to ...
, meaning that a phrase or an entire sentence is expressed by a single word. For example, the word for "white man" ''awanoch'' is a combination of the words ''awani'' meaning "who" and ''uji'' meaning "from". Thus, the word for "white man" literally translates to "Who is this man and where does he come from?"
History
In ''
Reflections in Bullough's Pond
''Reflections in Bullough's Pond: Economy and Ecosystem in New England'' is a book by Diana Muir. The Providence Journal called ''Bullough’s Pond'' "a masterpiece," and Publishers Weekly called it "lyrical". The Massachusetts Center for the Book ...
'', historian
Diana Muir argues that the Abenakis' neighbors, pre-contact Iroquois, were an imperialist, expansionist culture whose cultivation of the
corn/beans/squash agricultural complex enabled them to support a large population. They made war primarily against neighboring
Algonquian peoples
The Algonquian are one of the most populous and widespread North American native language groups. Historically, the peoples were prominent along the Atlantic Coast and into the interior along the Saint Lawrence River and around the Great Lakes. T ...
, including the Abenaki. Muir uses archaeological data to argue that the Iroquois expansion onto Algonquian lands was checked by the Algonquian adoption of agriculture. This enabled them to support their own populations large enough to have sufficient warriors to defend against the threat of Iroquois conquest.
In 1614,
Thomas Hunt captured 24 Abenaki people and took them to Spain, where they were sold into
slavery
Slavery and enslavement are both the state and the condition of being a slave—someone forbidden to quit one's service for an enslaver, and who is treated by the enslaver as property. Slavery typically involves slaves being made to perf ...
. During the European colonization of North America, the land occupied by the Abenaki was in the area between the new colonies of England in Massachusetts and the French in Quebec. Since no party agreed to territorial boundaries, there was regular conflict among them. The Abenaki were traditionally allied with the French; during the reign of
Louis XIV
, house = Bourbon
, father = Louis XIII
, mother = Anne of Austria
, birth_date =
, birth_place = Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, Saint-Germain-en-Laye, France
, death_date =
, death_place = Palace of Vers ...
, Chief
Assacumbuit was designated a member of the French nobility for his service.
Around 1669, the Abenaki started to emigrate to Quebec due to conflicts with English colonists and
epidemic
An epidemic (from Ancient Greek, Greek ἐπί ''epi'' "upon or above" and δῆμος ''demos'' "people") is the rapid spread of disease to a large number of patients among a given population within an area in a short period of time.
Epidemics ...
s of new infectious diseases. The governor of
New France
New France (french: Nouvelle-France) was the area colonized by France in North America, beginning with the exploration of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence by Jacques Cartier in 1534 and ending with the cession of New France to Great Britain and Spai ...
allocated two
seigneuries
''Seigneur'' is an originally feudal title in France before the Revolution, in New France and British North America until 1854, and in the Channel Islands to this day. A seigneur refers to the person or collective who owned a ''seigneurie'' (o ...
(large self-administered areas similar to feudal fiefs). The first was on the
Saint Francis River
The St. Francis River is a tributary of the Mississippi River, about long, in southeastern Missouri and northeastern Arkansas in the United States. The river drains a mostly rural area and forms part of the Missouri-Arkansas state line along the ...
and is now known as the ''
Odanak
Odanak is an Abenaki First Nations reserve in the Central Quebec region, Quebec, Canada. The mostly First Nations population as of the Canada 2021 Census was 481. The territory is located near the mouth of the Saint-François River at its confluenc ...
'' Indian Reservation; the second was founded near
Bécancour and is called the ''
Wolinak'' Indian Reservation.
Abenaki wars
When the
Wampanoag people
The Wampanoag , also rendered Wôpanâak, are an Indigenous people of the Northeastern Woodlands based in southeastern Massachusetts and historically parts of eastern Rhode Island,Salwen, "Indians of Southern New England and Long Island," p. 17 ...
under King Philip (
Metacomet
Metacomet (1638 – August 12, 1676), also known as Pometacom, Metacom, and by his adopted English name King Philip,[King Philip's War
King Philip's War (sometimes called the First Indian War, Metacom's War, Metacomet's War, Pometacomet's Rebellion, or Metacom's Rebellion) was an armed conflict in 1675–1676 between indigenous inhabitants of New England and New England coloni ...]
, the Abenaki joined the Wampanoag. For three years they fought along the Maine frontier in the
First Abenaki War
The First Abenaki War (also known as the northern theatre of King Philip's War) was fought along the New England/Acadia border primarily in present-day Maine. Richard Waldron and Charles Frost led the forces in the northern region, while Jean-Vinc ...
. The Abenaki pushed back the line of white settlement through devastating raids on scattered farmhouses and small villages. The war was settled by a peace treaty in 1678, with the Wampanoag more than decimated and many Native survivors having been sold into slavery in Bermuda.
During
Queen Anne's War
Queen Anne's War (1702–1713) was the second in a series of French and Indian Wars fought in North America involving the colonial empires of Great Britain, France, and Spain; it took place during the reign of Anne, Queen of Great Britain. In E ...
in 1702, the Abenaki were allied with the French; they raided numerous English colonial settlements in Maine, from
Wells
Wells most commonly refers to:
* Wells, Somerset, a cathedral city in Somerset, England
* Well, an excavation or structure created in the ground
* Wells (name)
Wells may also refer to:
Places Canada
*Wells, British Columbia
England
* Wells ...
to
Casco Casco may refer to: Places in the United States
*Casco, Maine, a town
** Casco (CDP), Maine, a census-designated place within the town
*Casco Bay, a bay on the coast of Maine
* Casco, Missouri, a ghost town
* Casco, Wisconsin, a village
*Casco (town ...
, killing about 300 settlers over ten years. They also occasionally raided into Massachusetts, for instance in Groton and Deerfield in 1704. The raids stopped when the war ended. Some captives were adopted into the
Mohawk Mohawk may refer to:
Related to Native Americans
* Mohawk people, an indigenous people of North America (Canada and New York)
*Mohawk language, the language spoken by the Mohawk people
* Mohawk hairstyle, from a hairstyle once thought to have been ...
and Abenaki tribes; older captives were generally ransomed, and the colonies carried on a brisk trade.
The Third Abenaki War (1722–25), called
Father Rale's War
Dummer's War (1722–1725) is also known as Father Rale's War, Lovewell's War, Greylock's War, the Three Years War, the Wabanaki-New England War, or the Fourth Anglo-Abenaki War. It was a series of battles between the New England Colonies and the ...
, erupted when the French
Jesuit
, image = Ihs-logo.svg
, image_size = 175px
, caption = ChristogramOfficial seal of the Jesuits
, abbreviation = SJ
, nickname = Jesuits
, formation =
, founders ...
missionary
Sébastien Rale
Sébastien Rale (also Racle, Râle, Rasle, Rasles and Sebastian Rale (January 20, 1657 – August 23, 1724) was a French Jesuit missionary and lexicographer who preached amongst the Abenaki and encouraged their resistance to British coloniza ...
(or Rasles, ~1657?-1724) encouraged the Abenaki to halt the spread of Yankee settlements. When the Massachusetts militia tried to seize Rale, the Abenaki raided the settlements at
Brunswick,
Arrowsick, and
Merry-Meeting Bay. The Massachusetts government then declared war and bloody battles were fought at
Norridgewock
Norridgewock was the name of both an Indigenous village and a band of the Abenaki ("People of the Dawn") Native Americans/First Nations, an Eastern Algonquian tribe of the United States and Canada. The French of New France called the village Ke ...
(1724), where Rale was killed, and at
a daylong battle at the Indian village near present-day
Fryeburg, Maine
Fryeburg is a town in Oxford County, Maine, United States. The population was 3,369 at the 2020 census. Fryeburg is home to Fryeburg Academy, a semi-private preparatory school, and the International Musical Arts Institute. The town is also s ...
, on the upper
Saco River
The Saco River (Abenaki language, Abenaki: ''Sαkóhki'') is a river in northeastern New Hampshire and southwestern Maine in the United States. It drains a rural area of of forests and farmlands west and southwest of Portland, Maine, Portland ...
(1725). Peace conferences at Boston and
Casco Bay
Casco Bay is an inlet of the Gulf of Maine on the southern coast of Maine, New England, United States. Its easternmost approach is Cape Small and its westernmost approach is Two Lights in Cape Elizabeth. The city of Portland sits along its south ...
brought an end to the war. After Rale died the Abenaki moved to a settlement on the St. Francis River.
The Abenaki from St. Francois continued to raid British settlements in their former homelands along the New England frontier during
Father Le Loutre's War
Father Le Loutre's War (1749–1755), also known as the Indian War, the Mi'kmaq War and the Anglo-Mi'kmaq War, took place between King George's War and the French and Indian War in Acadia and Nova Scotia. On one side of the conflict, the Briti ...
(see
Northeast Coast Campaign (1750)) and the
French and Indian War
The French and Indian War (1754–1763) was a theater of the Seven Years' War, which pitted the North American colonies of the British Empire against those of the French, each side being supported by various Native American tribes. At the ...
.
Canada
The development of tourism projects has allowed the Canadian Abenaki to develop a modern economy, while preserving their culture and traditions. For example, since 1960, the Odanak Historical Society has managed the first and one of the largest aboriginal museums in Quebec, a few miles from the Quebec-Montreal axis. Over 5,000 people visit the Abenaki Museum annually. Several Abenaki companies include: in Wôlinak, General Fiberglass Engineering employs a dozen natives, with annual sales exceeding C$3 million. Odanak is now active in transportation and distribution. Notable Abenaki from this area include the documentary filmmaker
Alanis Obomsawin
Alanis Obomsawin, (born August 31, 1932) is an Abenaki American Canadian filmmaker, singer, artist, and activist primarily known for her documentary films. Born in New Hampshire, United States and raised primarily in Quebec, Canada, she has writ ...
(
National Film Board of Canada
The National Film Board of Canada (NFB; french: Office national du film du Canada (ONF)) is Canada's public film and digital media producer and distributor. An agency of the Government of Canada, the NFB produces and distributes documentary f ...
).
United States
Maine: federally recognized tribes
The
Penobscot Indian Nation,
Passamaquoddy
The Passamaquoddy ( Maliseet-Passamaquoddy: ''Peskotomuhkati'') are a Native American/First Nations people who live in northeastern North America. Their traditional homeland, Peskotomuhkatik'','' straddles the Canadian province of New Brunswick ...
people, and
Houlton Band of Maliseet Indians
The Houlton Band of Maliseet Indians of Maine ( pqm, Metaksonekiyak Wolastoqewiyik) is a federally recognized tribe of Maliseet, whose land is along the Meduxnekeag River in Maine. They are headquartered in Littleton, Maine, located in Aro ...
have been
federally recognized
This is a list of federally recognized tribes in the contiguous United States of America. There are also federally recognized Alaska Native tribes. , 574 Indian tribes were legally recognized by the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) of the United ...
as tribes in the United States.
Vermont: state-recognized tribes
Nulhegan Band of the Coosuk Abenaki Nation
The Nulhegan Band of the Coosuk Abenaki Nation is a state-recognized tribe and nonprofit organization, called AHA "Abenaki Helping Abenaki", whose headquarters and land are based in Vermont. They are often referred to as the Nulhegan Abenaki Trib ...
,
Koasek Abenaki Tribe
The Koasek Abenaki Tribe is a state-recognized tribe in Vermont, who claim descent from Abenaki people.
They are not federally recognized as a Native American tribe. Vermont does not have any federally recognized Native American tribes.
This org ...
,
Elnu Abenaki Tribe
The Elnu Abenaki Tribe is a state-recognized tribe in Vermont, who claim descent from Abenaki people.
They are not federally recognized as a Native American tribe. Vermont has no federally recognized tribes.
Leadership
Roger Longtoe Sheeha ...
, and the
Missiquoi Abenaki Tribe are all
state-recognized tribes
State-recognized tribes in the United States are organizations that identify as Native American tribes or heritage groups that do not meet the criteria for federally recognized Indian tribes but have been recognized by a process established under ...
in the United States, all in the state of Vermont.
Recognition allows applicants to seek certain scholarship funds reserved for American Indians and to for members to market artwork as American Indian or Native American-made under the 1990
Indian Arts and Crafts Act
The Indian Arts and Crafts Act of 1990 (P.L. 101-644) is a truth-in-advertising law which prohibits misrepresentation in marketing of American Indian or Alaska Native arts and crafts products within the United States. It is illegal to offer or ...
.
[Hallenbeck, Terri]
Abenaki Turn to Vermont Legislature for Recognition ''Burlington Free Press''
January 20, 2011. Retrieved January 20, 2011
In 2002, the State of Vermont reported that the Abenaki people had migrated north to
Quebec
Quebec ( ; )According to the Canadian government, ''Québec'' (with the acute accent) is the official name in Canadian French and ''Quebec'' (without the accent) is the province's official name in Canadian English is one of the thirtee ...
by the end of the 17th century. Facing annihilation, many Abenaki had begun emigrating to Canada, then under French control, around 1669. The Odanak band of the Abenaki First Nation, denounced any groups claiming to be Abenaki in the United States.
New Hampshire and minority recognition
New Hampshire does not recognize any Abenaki tribes. It has no federally recognized tribes or state-recognized tribes; however, it established the New Hampshire Commission on Native American Affairs in 2010.
In 2021, a bill was introduced to the New Hampshire legislature to allow New Hampshire communities to rename locations in the Abenaki language.
This bill did not pass.
Culture
There are a dozen variations of the name "Abenaki", such as Abenaquiois, Abakivis, Quabenakionek, Wabenakies and others.
The Abenaki were described in the ''Jesuit Relations'' as not
cannibals
Cannibalism is the act of consuming another individual of the same species as food. Cannibalism is a common ecological interaction in the animal kingdom and has been recorded in more than 1,500 species. Human cannibalism is well documented, bo ...
, and as docile, ingenious, temperate in the use of liquor, and not profane.
Abenaki lifeways were similar to those of Algonquian-speaking peoples of southern New England. They cultivated food crops and built villages on or near fertile river floodplains. They also hunted game, fished, and gathered wild plants and fungi.
Unlike the
Haudenosaunee
The Iroquois ( or ), officially the Haudenosaunee ( meaning "people of the longhouse"), are an Iroquoian Peoples, Iroquoian-speaking Confederation#Indigenous confederations in North America, confederacy of First Nations in Canada, First Natio ...
, the Abenaki were
patrilineal
Patrilineality, also known as the male line, the spear side or agnatic kinship, is a common kinship system in which an individual's family membership derives from and is recorded through their father's lineage. It generally involves the inheritanc ...
. Each man had different hunting territories inherited through his father.
Most of the year, Abenaki lived in dispersed bands of extended families. Bands came together during the spring and summer at seasonal villages near rivers, or somewhere along the seacoast for planting and fishing. During the winter, the Abenaki lived in small groups further inland. These villages occasionally had to be fortified, depending on the alliances and enemies of other tribes or of Europeans near the village. Abenaki villages were quite small with an average number of 100 residents.
Most Abenaki crafted dome-shaped, bark-covered
wigwam
A wigwam, wickiup, wetu (Wampanoag), or wiigiwaam (Ojibwe, in syllabics: ) is a semi-permanent domed dwelling formerly used by certain Native American tribes and First Nations people and still used for ceremonial events. The term ''wickiup'' ...
s for housing, though a few preferred oval-shaped longhouses.
During the winter, the Abenaki lined the inside of their conical wigwams with bear and deer skins for warmth.
Gender, food, division of labor, and other cultural traits
The Abenaki were a farming society that supplemented agriculture with hunting and gathering. Generally the men were the hunters. The women tended the fields and grew the crops.
In their fields, they planted the crops in groups of "sisters". The three sisters were grown together: the stalk of corn supported the beans, and squash or pumpkins provided ground cover and reduced weeds.
The men would hunt bears, deer, fish, and birds.
The Abenaki were a patrilineal society, which was common among New England tribes. In this they differed from the six Iroquois tribes to the west in New York, and from many other North American Native tribes who had
matrilineal
Matrilineality is the tracing of kinship through the female line. It may also correlate with a social system in which each person is identified with their matriline – their mother's Lineage (anthropology), lineage – and which can in ...
societies.
Groups used the
consensus method to make important decisions.
Storytelling
Storytelling
Storytelling is the social and cultural activity of sharing stories, sometimes with improvisation, theatrics or embellishment. Every culture has its own stories or narratives, which are shared as a means of entertainment, education, cultural pre ...
is a major part of Abenaki culture. It is used not only as entertainment but also as a teaching method. The Abenaki view stories as having lives of their own and being aware of how they are used. Stories were used as a means of teaching children behavior. Children were not to be mistreated, and so instead of punishing the child, they would be told a story.
One of the stories is of Azban the Raccoon. This is a story about a proud
raccoon
The raccoon ( or , ''Procyon lotor''), sometimes called the common raccoon to distinguish it from other species, is a mammal native to North America. It is the largest of the procyonid family, having a body length of , and a body weight of ...
that challenges a
waterfall
A waterfall is a point in a river or stream where water flows over a vertical drop or a series of steep drops. Waterfalls also occur where meltwater drops over the edge of a tabular iceberg or ice shelf.
Waterfalls can be formed in several wa ...
to a shouting contest. When the waterfall does not respond, Azban dives into the waterfall to try to outshout it; he is swept away because of his
pride
Pride is defined by Merriam-Webster as "reasonable self-esteem" or "confidence and satisfaction in oneself". A healthy amount of pride is good, however, pride sometimes is used interchangeably with "conceit" or "arrogance" (among other words) wh ...
. This story would be used to show a child the pitfalls of pride.
Mythology
Ethnobotany
The Abenaki smash the flowers and leaves of
Ranunculus acris
''Ranunculus acris'' is a species of flowering plant in the family Ranunculaceae, and is one of the more common buttercups across Europe and temperate Eurasia. Common names include meadow buttercup, tall buttercup, common buttercup and giant but ...
and sniff them for headaches. They consume the fruit of
Vaccinium myrtilloides
''Vaccinium myrtilloides'' is a shrub with common names including common blueberry, velvetleaf huckleberry, velvetleaf blueberry, Canadian blueberry, and sourtop blueberry. It is common in much of North America, reported from all 10 Canadian prov ...
as part of their traditional diet. They also use the fruit and the grains of
Viburnum nudum var. cassinoides for food.
Many other plants are used for various healing and treatment modalities, including for the skin, as a disinfectant, as a cure-all, as a respiratory aid, for colds, coughs, fevers, grippe, gas, blood strengthening, headaches and other pains,
rheumatism
Rheumatism or rheumatic disorders are conditions causing chronic, often intermittent pain affecting the joints or connective tissue. Rheumatism does not designate any specific disorder, but covers at least 200 different conditions, including art ...
,
demulcent
A demulcent (derived from the la, demulcere "caress") is a mucilaginous or oleaginous preparation that forms a soothing protective film over a mucous membrane, relieving minor pain and inflammation of the membrane. However, they generally help fo ...
, nasal inflammation,
anthelmintic
Anthelmintics or antihelminthics are a group of antiparasitic drugs that expel parasitic worms (helminths) and other internal parasites from the body by either stunning or killing them and without causing significant damage to the host. They may a ...
, for the eyes,
abortifacent
An abortifacient ("that which will cause a miscarriage" from Latin: ''abortus'' "miscarriage" and '' faciens'' "making") is a substance that induces abortion. This is a nonspecific term which may refer to any number of substances or medications, ...
, for the bones,
antihemorrhagic
An antihemorrhagic (antihæmorrhagic) agent is a substance that promotes hemostasis (stops bleeding). It may also be known as a hemostatic (also spelled haemostatic) agent.
Antihemorrhagic agents used in medicine have various mechanisms of action: ...
, as a
sedative
A sedative or tranquilliser is a substance that induces sedation by reducing irritability or excitement. They are CNS depressants and interact with brain activity causing its deceleration. Various kinds of sedatives can be distinguished, but t ...
,
anaphrodisiac
An anaphrodisiac (also antaphrodisiac or antiaphrodisiac) is a substance that quells or blunts the libido. It is the opposite of an aphrodisiac, something that enhances sexual appetite. The word ''anaphrodisiac'' comes from the Greek privative p ...
, swellings, urinary aid, gastrointestinal aid, as a
hemostat
A hemostat (also called a hemostatic clamp, arterial forceps, or pean after Jules-Émile Péan) is a surgical tool used in many surgical procedures to control bleeding. For this reason, it is common in the initial phases of surgery for the initia ...
, pediatric aid (such as for teething), and other unspecified or general uses.
They use
Hierochloe odorata
''Hierochloe odorata'' or ''Anthoxanthum nitens'' (commonly known as sweet grass, manna grass, Mary’s grass or vanilla grass, and as holy grass in the UK, bison grass e.g. by Polish vodka producers) is an aromatic herb native to northern E ...
(sweetgrass),
Apocynum
''Apocynum'', commonly known as dogbane or Indian hemp, is a small genus of the flowering plant family Apocynaceae. Its name comes from Ancient Greek , from "away" and "dog", referring to dogbane ('' Cionura erecta''), which was used to pois ...
(dogbane),
Betula papyrifera
''Betula papyrifera'' (paper birch, also known as (American) white birch and canoe birch) is a short-lived species of birch native to northern North America. Paper birch is named for the tree's thin white bark, which often peels in paper like ...
(paper birch),
Fraxinus americana
''Fraxinus americana'', the white ash or American ash, is a species of '' ash tree'' native to eastern and central North America.
The species is native to mesophytic hardwood forests from Nova Scotia west to Minnesota, south to northern Florida ...
(white ash),
Fraxinus nigra
''Fraxinus nigra'', the black ash, is a species of ash native to much of eastern Canada and the northeastern United States, from western Newfoundland west to southeastern Manitoba, and south to Illinois and northern Virginia. Formerly abundant, a ...
(black ash),
Laportea canadensis
''Laportea canadensis'', commonly called Canada nettle or wood-nettle, is an annual or perennial herbaceous plant of the nettle family Urticaceae, native to eastern and central North America. It is found growing in open woods with moist rich soi ...
(Canada nettle), a variety of
Salix
Willows, also called sallows and osiers, from the genus ''Salix'', comprise around 400 speciesMabberley, D.J. 1997. The Plant Book, Cambridge University Press #2: Cambridge. of typically deciduous trees and shrubs, found primarily on moist so ...
species, and
Tilia americana
''Tilia americana'' is a species of tree in the family Malvaceae, native to eastern North America, from southeast Manitoba east to New Brunswick, southwest to northeast Oklahoma, southeast to South Carolina, and west along the Niobrara River to ...
(basswood, or American linden) var. americana for making baskets, canoes, snowshoes, and whistles. They use Hierochloe odorata and willow to make containers, Betula papyrifera to create containers, moose calls and other utilitarian pieces, and the bark of
Cornus sericea
''Cornus sericea'', the red osier or red-osier dogwood, is a species of flowering plant in the family (biology), family Cornaceae, native to much of North America. It has sometimes been considered a synonym of the Asian species ''Cornus alba''. ...
(red osier dogwood) ssp. sericea for smoking.
They also use
Acer rubrum
''Acer rubrum'', the red maple, also known as swamp maple, water maple, or soft maple, is one of the most common and widespread deciduous trees of eastern and central North America. The U.S. Forest Service recognizes it as the most abundant nati ...
,
Acornus calamus, an unknown
Amelanchier
''Amelanchier'' ( ), also known as shadbush, shadwood or shadblow, serviceberry or sarvisberry (or just sarvis), juneberry, saskatoon, sugarplum, wild-plum or chuckley pear,A Digital Flora of Newfoundland and Labrador Vascular Plants/ref> is a g ...
species,
Caltha palustris,
Cardamine diphylla
''Cardamine diphylla'' (broadleaf toothwort, crinkle root, crinkle-root, crinkleroot, pepper root, twin-leaved toothwort, twoleaf toothwort, toothwort) is a plant native to North America.
''Cardamine diphylla'' is a spring woodland plant that i ...
,
Cornus canadensis
''Cornus canadensis'' is a species of flowering plant in the dogwood family Cornaceae, native to eastern Asia and North America. Common names include Canadian dwarf cornel, Canadian bunchberry, quatre-temps, crackerberry, and creeping dogwood. Un ...
, an unknown
Crataegus
''Crataegus'' (), commonly called hawthorn, quickthorn, thornapple, Voss, E. G. 1985. ''Michigan Flora: A guide to the identification and occurrence of the native and naturalized seed-plants of the state. Part II: Dicots (Saururaceae–Cornacea ...
species,
Fragaria virginiana
''Fragaria virginiana'', known as Virginia strawberry, wild strawberry, common strawberry, or mountain strawberry, is a North American strawberry that grows across much of the United States and southern Canada. It is one of the two species of wi ...
,
Gaultheria procumbens
''Gaultheria procumbens'', also called the eastern teaberry, the checkerberry, the boxberry, or the American wintergreen, is a species of ''Gaultheria'' native to northeastern North America from Newfoundland west to southeastern Manitoba, and sou ...
,
Osmunda cinnamomea
''Osmundastrum'' is genus of leptosporangiate ferns in the family Osmundaceae with one living species, ''Osmundastrum cinnamomeum'', the cinnamon fern. It is native to the Americas and eastern Asia, growing in swamps, bogs and moist woodlands.
I ...
,
Phaseolus vulgaris
''Phaseolus vulgaris'', the common bean, is a herbaceous annual plant grown worldwide for its edible dry seeds or green, unripe pods. Its leaf is also occasionally used as a vegetable and the straw as fodder. Its botanical classification, alo ...
,
Photinia melanocarpa,
Prunus virginiana
''Prunus virginiana'', commonly called bitter-berry, chokecherry, Virginia bird cherry, and western chokecherry (also black chokecherry for ''P. virginiana'' var. ''demissa''), is a species of bird cherry (''Prunus'' subgenus ''Padus'') nat ...
,
Rubus idaeus
''Rubus idaeus'' (raspberry, also called red raspberry or occasionally European red raspberry to distinguish it from other raspberry species) is a red-fruited species of ''Rubus'' native to Europe and northern Asia and commonly cultivated in othe ...
and another unknown Rubus species,
Solanum tuberosum
The potato is a starch#Food, starchy food, a tuber of the plant ''Solanum tuberosum'' and is a root vegetable native to the Americas. The plant is a perennial plant, perennial in the nightshade family Solanaceae.
Wild potato species can be fo ...
,
Spiraea alba
''Spiraea alba'', commonly known as meadowsweet, white meadowsweet, narrowleaf meadowsweet, pale bridewort, or pipestem, is native to the wet soils of the Allegheny Mountains and other portions of eastern North America, but is currently endanger ...
var. latifolia,
Vaccinium angustifolium
''Vaccinium angustifolium'', commonly known as the wild lowbush blueberry, is a species of blueberry native to eastern and central Canada (from Manitoba to Newfoundland) and the northeastern United States, growing as far south as the Great Smoky ...
, and
Zea mays
Maize ( ; ''Zea mays'' subsp. ''mays'', from es, maíz after tnq, mahiz), also known as corn (North American and Australian English), is a cereal grain first domesticated by indigenous peoples in southern Mexico about 10,000 years ago. Th ...
as a tea, soup, jelly, sweetener,
condiment
A condiment is a preparation that is added to food, typically after cooking, to impart a specific Flavoring, flavor, to enhance the flavor, or to complement the dish. A table condiment or table sauce is more specifically a condiment that is serv ...
, snack, or meal.
The Abenaki use the gum of
Abies balsamea
''Abies balsamea'' or balsam fir is a North American fir, native to most of eastern and central Canada ( Newfoundland west to central Alberta) and the northeastern United States (Minnesota east to Maine, and south in the Appalachian Mountains to ...
for slight itches and as an antiseptic ointment. They stuff the leaves, needles and wood into pillows as a
panacea
In Greek mythology, Panacea (Greek ''Πανάκεια'', Panakeia), a goddess of universal remedy, was the daughter of Asclepius and Epione. Panacea and her four sisters each performed a facet of Apollo's art:
* Panacea (the goddess of universal ...
.
Population and epidemics
Before the Abenaki, except the Pennacook and
Miꞌkmaq
The Mi'kmaq (also ''Mi'gmaq'', ''Lnu'', ''Miꞌkmaw'' or ''Miꞌgmaw''; ; ) are a First Nations people of the Northeastern Woodlands, indigenous to the areas of Canada's Atlantic Provinces and the Gaspé Peninsula of Quebec as well as the nort ...
, had contact with the European world, their population may have numbered as many as 40,000. Around 20,000 would have been Eastern Abenaki, another 10,000 would have been Western Abenaki, and the last 10,000 would have been Maritime Abenaki. Early contact with European fishermen resulted in two major epidemics that affected Abenaki during the 16th century. The first epidemic was an unknown sickness occurring sometime between 1564 and 1570, and the second one was
typhus
Typhus, also known as typhus fever, is a group of infectious diseases that include epidemic typhus, scrub typhus, and murine typhus. Common symptoms include fever, headache, and a rash. Typically these begin one to two weeks after exposure.
...
in 1586. Multiple epidemics arrived a decade prior to the English colonization of Massachusetts in 1620, when three separate sicknesses swept across New England and the Canadian Maritimes. Maine was hit very hard during the year of 1617, with a fatality rate of 75%, and the population of the Eastern Abenaki fell to about 5,000. The more isolated Western Abenaki suffered fewer fatalities, losing about half of their original population of 10,000.
The new diseases continued to strike in epidemics, starting with
smallpox
Smallpox was an infectious disease caused by variola virus (often called smallpox virus) which belongs to the genus Orthopoxvirus. The last naturally occurring case was diagnosed in October 1977, and the World Health Organization (WHO) c ...
in 1631, 1633, and 1639. Seven years later, an unknown epidemic struck, with
influenza
Influenza, commonly known as "the flu", is an infectious disease caused by influenza viruses. Symptoms range from mild to severe and often include fever, runny nose, sore throat, muscle pain, headache, coughing, and fatigue. These symptoms ...
passing through the following year. Smallpox affected the Abenaki again in 1649, and
diphtheria
Diphtheria is an infection caused by the bacterium '' Corynebacterium diphtheriae''. Most infections are asymptomatic or have a mild clinical course, but in some outbreaks more than 10% of those diagnosed with the disease may die. Signs and s ...
came through 10 years later. Smallpox struck in 1670, and influenza in 1675. Smallpox affected the Native Americans in 1677, 1679, 1687, along with
measles
Measles is a highly contagious infectious disease caused by measles virus. Symptoms usually develop 10–12 days after exposure to an infected person and last 7–10 days. Initial symptoms typically include fever, often greater than , cough, ...
, 1691, 1729, 1733, 1755, and finally in 1758.
The Abenaki population continued to decline, but in 1676, they took in thousands of refugees from many southern New England tribes displaced by settlement and
King Philip's War
King Philip's War (sometimes called the First Indian War, Metacom's War, Metacomet's War, Pometacomet's Rebellion, or Metacom's Rebellion) was an armed conflict in 1675–1676 between indigenous inhabitants of New England and New England coloni ...
. Because of this, descendants of nearly every southern New England Algonquian tribe can be found among the Abenaki people. A century later, fewer than 1,000 Abenaki remained after the
American Revolution
The American Revolution was an ideological and political revolution that occurred in British America between 1765 and 1791. The Americans in the Thirteen Colonies formed independent states that defeated the British in the American Revolut ...
.
In the
1990 U.S. Census, 1,549 people identified themselves as Abenaki. So did 2,544 people in the
2000 U.S census, with 6,012 people claiming Abenaki heritage.
In 1991 Canadian Abenaki numbered 945; by 2006 they numbered 2,164.
Fiction
Lydia Maria Child
Lydia Maria Child ( Francis; February 11, 1802October 20, 1880) was an American abolitionist, women's rights activist, Native American rights activist, novelist, journalist, and opponent of American expansionism.
Her journals, both fiction and ...
wrote of the Abenaki in her short story, "The Church in the Wilderness" (1828). Several Abenaki characters and much about their 18th-century culture are featured in the
Kenneth Roberts novel ''Arundel'' (1930). The film ''
Northwest Passage
The Northwest Passage (NWP) is the sea route between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans through the Arctic Ocean, along the northern coast of North America via waterways through the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. The eastern route along the Arct ...
'' (1940) is based on a novel of the same name by Roberts.
The Abenaki are featured in
Charles McCarry
Charles McCarry (June 14, 1930 – February 26, 2019) was an American writer, primarily of spy fiction, and a former undercover operative for the Central Intelligence Agency.
Biography
McCarry's family came from The Berkshires area of western ...
's historical novel ''Bride of the Wilderness'' (1988), and
James Archibald Houston
James Archibald Houston (June 12, 1921 – April 17, 2005) was a Canadian artist, designer, children's author and filmmaker who played an important role in the recognition of Inuit art and introduced printmaking to the Inuit. The Inuit named him ...
's novel ''Ghost Fox'' (1977), both of which are set in the eighteenth century; and in
Jodi Picoult
Jodi Lynn Picoult () is an American writer. Picoult has published 28 novels, accompanying short stories, and has also written several issues of Wonder Woman. Approximately 40 million copies of her books are in print worldwide, translated into 34 ...
's ''Second Glance'' (2003) and ''Lone Wolf'' (2012) novels, set in the contemporary world. Books for younger readers both have historical settings:
Joseph Bruchac
Joseph Bruchac (born October 16, 1942) is an American writer and storyteller based in New York.
He writes about Indigenous peoples of the Americas, with a particular focus on northeastern Native American and Anglo-American lives and folklore. He ...
's ''The Arrow Over the Door'' (1998) (grades 4–6) is set in 1777; and Beth Kanell's young adult novel, ''The Darkness Under the Water'' (2008), concerns a young Abenaki-French Canadian girl during the time of the
Vermont Eugenics Project, 1931–1936.
The first sentence in
Norman Mailer
Nachem Malech Mailer (January 31, 1923 – November 10, 2007), known by his pen name Norman Kingsley Mailer, was an American novelist, journalist, essayist, playwright, activist, filmmaker and actor. In a career spanning over six decades, Mailer ...
's novel ''
Harlot's Ghost'' makes reference to the Abenaki: "On a late-winter evening in 1983, while driving through fog along the Maine coast, recollections of old campfires began to drift into the March mist, and I thought of the Abnaki Indians of the Algonquin tribe who dwelt near Bangor a thousand years ago."
Non-fiction
Letters and other non-fiction writing can be found in the anthology ''Dawnland Voices''. Selections include letters from leader of the early praying town, Wamesit in Massachusetts Samuel Numphow, Sagamore Kancamagus, and writings on the Abenaki language by former chief of the reserve at Odanak in Quebec, Joseph Laurent as well as many others.
Accounts of life with the Abenaki can be found in the
captivity narratives
Captivity narratives are usually stories of people captured by enemies whom they consider uncivilized, or whose beliefs and customs they oppose. The best-known captivity narratives in North America are those concerning Europeans and Americans ta ...
written by women taken captive by the Abenaki from the early New England settlements:
Mary Rowlandson
Mary Rowlandson, née White, later Mary Talcott (c. 1637January 5, 1711), was a colonial American woman who was captured by Native Americans in 1676 during King Philip's War and held for 11 weeks before being ransomed. In 1682, six years after h ...
(1682),
Hannah Duston
Hannah Duston (also spelled Dustin, Dustan, or Durstan) (born Hannah Emerson, December 23, 1657 – March 6, 1736, (1702);
Elizabeth Hanson
Elizabeth Hanson (born 1951), also known as Liz Hanson, is a Canadian politician from the Yukon. She was the leader of the Yukon New Democratic Party from 2009 until 2019, and represented the electoral district of Whitehorse Centre in the Yukon ...
(1728);
Susannah Willard Johnson (1754); and
Jemima Howe Jemima is a feminine given name of Hebrew origin (first written Jemimah, Hebrew: יְמִימָה, Yemimah) which may refer to:
People
* Jemima Blackburn (1823–1909), Scottish painter
* Jemima Boone, daughter of Daniel Boone captured by Indians ...
(1792).
Maps
Maps showing the approximate locations of areas occupied by members of the
Wabanaki Confederacy
The Wabanaki Confederacy (''Wabenaki, Wobanaki'', translated to "People of the Dawn" or "Easterner") is a North American First Nations and Native American confederation of four principal Eastern Algonquian nations: the Miꞌkmaq, Maliseet ( ...
(from north to south):
File:Les Micmacs (multilingual).svg,
File:Wohngebiet Maliseet.png,
File:Wohngebiet Oestlicheabenaki.png,
File:Wohngebiet Westlicheabenaki.png,
Notable historic Abenaki people
Please list living people under their First Nation or state-recognized tribe.
*
Indian Joe
Indian Joe, (Captain Joe, Old Joe, Jo Indian, Joe Injun, Abenaki language, Abenaki translation of Joseph: Susapp) was a Native Americans in the United States, Native American scout.
Biography
Born near Louisbourg, Nova Scotia of Mi'kmaq people, ...
(–1819), an 18th-century Mi'kmaw scout, adopted by the Abenaki
*
Joseph Laurent
Joseph Laurent ( abe, Sozap Lolô; 1839–1917), was an Abenaki chief, best known for authoring an Abenaki language dictionary. He also established a trading post in New Hampshire that is listed in the National Register of Historic Places.
Biog ...
(1839–1917), chief, author, language advocate, businessman
*
Henry Lorne Masta Henry Lorne Masta (born March 9, 1853) was an Abenaki writer, teacher, and scholar of the Abenaki language. He was also a respected leader in the Abenaki community. Masta published ''Abenaki Legends, Grammar, and Place Names'' in 1932. He began writ ...
(1853–1943), chief, language advocate, and author
*
Elijah Tahamont
Dark Cloud (September 20, 1855 – September 17, 1918) was a First Nations silent film actor, born Elijah Tahamont. He was a chief of the Abenaki, a First Nations band government belonging to the Eastern Algonquian peoples of northeastern North ...
(1855–1918),
silent film actor
A silent film is a film with no synchronized recorded sound (or more generally, no audible dialogue). Though silent films convey narrative and emotion visually, various plot elements (such as a setting or era) or key lines of dialogue may, wh ...
Dark Cloud
See also
*
Mount Pemigewasset
Mount Pemigewasset, or Indian Head, is a mountain in Franconia Notch in the White Mountains in Grafton County, New Hampshire. It lies near the town of Lincoln.
The mountain is known for the distinctive cliff along the southern side of its summit ...
Footnotes
Bibliography
* Aubery, Joseph Fr. and Stephen Laurent, 1995. Father Aubery's French Abenaki Dictionary: English translation. S. Laurent (Translator). Chisholm Bros. Publishing
Baker, C. Alice, 1897. ''True Stories of New England Captives Carried to Canada during the Old French and Indian Wars''. Press of E.A. Hall & Company Greenfield, Massachusetts
Greenfield is a city in and the county seat of Franklin County, Massachusetts, United States. Greenfield was first settled in 1686. The population was 17,768 at the 2020 census. Greenfield is home to Greenfield Community College, the Pioneer Val ...
* Charland, Thomas-M. (O.P.), 1964. ''Les Abenakis D'Odanak: Histoire des Abénakis D'Odanak (1675–1937)''. Les Éditions du Lévrier, Montreal, QC
* Coleman, Emma Lewis. ''New England Captives Carried to Canada: Between 1677 and 1760 During the French and Indian Wars'', Heritage Books, 1989 (reprint 1925).
* Day, Gordon, 1981. ''The Identity of the Saint Francis Indians'', National Museums of Canada, Ottawa, National Museum Of Man Mercury Series , Canadian Ethnology Service Paper No. 71 .
* Reprinted (paperback) Sept. 2006: Vancouver: Global Language Press], ; Dec. 2009 (hardcover): Kessinger Publishings Legacy Reprint Series; and April 2010 (paperback): Nabu Press.
* Masta, Henry Lorne, 1932. ''Abenaki Legends, Grammar and Place Names.''
Victoriaville
Victoriaville is a town in central Quebec, Canada, on the Nicolet River. Victoriaville is the seat of Arthabaska Regional County Municipality and a part of the Centre-du-Québec (Bois-Francs) region. It is formed by the 1993 merger of Arthabask ...
, PQ: La Voix Des Bois-Franes. Reprinted 2008: Toronto: Global Language Press,
Maurault, Joseph-Anselme (Abbot), 1866. ''Histoire des Abénakis, depuis 1605 jusqu'à nos jours''. Published at L'Atelier typographique de la "Gazette de Sorel", QC* Moondancer and Strong Woman, 2007. ''A Cultural History of the Native Peoples of Southern New England: Voices from Past and Present''.
Boulder, CO
Boulder is a home rule city that is the county seat and most populous municipality of Boulder County, Colorado, United States. The city population was 108,250 at the 2020 United States census, making it the 12th most populous city in Colora ...
: Bauu Press,
Further reading
Other grammar books and dictionaries include:
* Dr. Gordon M. Day's two-volume ''Western Abenaki Dictionary'' (August 1994), Paperback: 616 pages, Publisher: Canadian Museum Of Civilization
* Chief Henry Lorne Masta's ''Abenaki Legends, Grammar, and Place Names'' (1932), Odanak, Quebec, reprinted in 2008 by Global Language Press
*
Joseph Aubery
Joseph Aubery (born at Gisors in Normandy, 10 May 1673; died at Saint-François, Quebec, Canada, 2 July 1755 was a French Jesuit missionary in Canada. Chateaubriand reproduces the life-story of Father Aubery in the character of the missionary in ...
's ''Father Aubery's French-Abenaki Dictionary'' (1700), translated into English-Abenaki by Stephen Laurent, and published in hardcover (525 pp.) by Chisholm Bros. Publishing.
External links
Penobscot Nation Maine
Conseil des Abénakis d'Odanak Quebec
Abenaki (Wôbanakiôdwawôgan) Omniglot
Missisquoi Abenaki Tribal Council