The East St. Louis Riots were a series of outbreaks of
labor
Labour or labor may refer to:
* Childbirth, the delivery of a baby
* Labour (human activity), or work
** Manual labour, physical work
** Wage labour, a socioeconomic relationship between a worker and an employer
** Organized labour and the la ...
and
race-related violence by
White Americans
White Americans are Americans who identify as and are perceived to be white people. This group constitutes the majority of the people in the United States. As of the 2020 Census, 61.6%, or 204,277,273 people, were white alone. This represented ...
who murdered between 39 and
150 African Americans in late May and early July 1917. Another 6,000 black people were left homeless,
and the burning and vandalism cost approximately $400,000 ($ million in ) in property damage.
The events took place in and near
East St. Louis
East or Orient is one of the four cardinal directions or points of the compass. It is the opposite direction from west and is the direction from which the Sun rises on the Earth.
Etymology
As in other languages, the word is formed from the f ...
,
Illinois
Illinois ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Midwestern United States, Midwestern United States. Its largest metropolitan areas include the Chicago metropolitan area, and the Metro East section, of Greater St. Louis. Other smaller metropolita ...
, an industrial city on the east bank of the
Mississippi River
The Mississippi River is the second-longest river and chief river of the second-largest drainage system in North America, second only to the Hudson Bay drainage system. From its traditional source of Lake Itasca in northern Minnesota, it f ...
, directly opposite the city of
St. Louis
St. Louis () is the second-largest city in Missouri, United States. It sits near the confluence of the Mississippi and the Missouri Rivers. In 2020, the city proper had a population of 301,578, while the bi-state metropolitan area, which e ...
,
Missouri
Missouri is a U.S. state, state in the Midwestern United States, Midwestern region of the United States. Ranking List of U.S. states and territories by area, 21st in land area, it is bordered by eight states (tied for the most with Tennessee ...
. The July 1917 episode in particular was marked by white-led violence throughout the city. The multi-day riot has been described as the "worst case of
labor-related violence in 20th-century
American history
The history of the lands that became the United States began with the arrival of the first people in the Americas around 15,000 BC. Numerous indigenous cultures formed, and many saw transformations in the 16th century away from more densely ...
", and among the worst racial riots in U.S. history.
In the aftermath, the East St. Louis
Chamber of Commerce
A chamber of commerce, or board of trade, is a form of business network. For example, a local organization of businesses whose goal is to further the interests of businesses. Business owners in towns and cities form these local societies to ad ...
called for the resignation of the local police chief because officers were told not to shoot white rioters and were unable to suppress the violence and destruction. A number of black people left the city permanently; black enrollment in public schools in the area had dropped by 35% by the time schools opened in the fall.
At the end of July, some 10,000 black citizens
marched in silent protest in
New York City
New York, often called New York City or NYC, is the List of United States cities by population, most populous city in the United States. With a 2020 population of 8,804,190 distributed over , New York City is also the L ...
in condemnation of the riot.
Background
In 1917, the United States had an active economy boosted by
World War I
World War I (28 July 1914 11 November 1918), often abbreviated as WWI, was one of the deadliest global conflicts in history. Belligerents included much of Europe, the Russian Empire, the United States, and the Ottoman Empire, with fightin ...
. Many would-be workers were drafted or enlisted into military service, creating a shortage of labor for industrial employers in major cities, which had long been destinations for European immigrants. Concurrently African Americans began the
Great Migration from the rural Southern United States to seek better work and education in the North, as well as to escape from
lynchings and the second-class status of the
Jim Crow
The Jim Crow laws were state and local laws enforcing racial segregation in the Southern United States. Other areas of the United States were affected by formal and informal policies of segregation as well, but many states outside the Sout ...
era. Labor agencies recruited some workers for specific jobs, especially as
strikebreaker
A strikebreaker (sometimes called a scab, blackleg, or knobstick) is a person who works despite a strike. Strikebreakers are usually individuals who were not employed by the company before the trade union dispute but hired after or during the st ...
s, but labor demand was sufficient that migrants moved on their own, having heard about the new employment opportunities created by the wartime economy.
The neighboring communities of
St. Louis, Missouri
St. Louis () is the second-largest city in Missouri, United States. It sits near the confluence of the Mississippi River, Mississippi and the Missouri Rivers. In 2020, the city proper had a population of 301,578, while the Greater St. Louis, ...
, and
East St. Louis, Illinois
East St. Louis is a city in St. Clair County, Illinois. It is directly across the Mississippi River from Downtown St. Louis, Missouri and the Gateway Arch National Park. East St. Louis is in the Metro-East region of Southern Illinois. Once a b ...
, both became destinations for southern migrants. During the spring of 1917, Blacks were arriving in St. Louis at the rate of 2,000 per week.
["Speech by Marcus Garvey, July 8, 1917"](_blank)
Excerpts from Robert A. Hill, ed. ''The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers'', Volume I, 1826 – August 1919. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1983, accessed 1 February 2009, PBS, ''American Experience''.
Major industries in East St. Louis included Aluminum Ore Company, American Steel Foundry, Republic Iron & Steel, Obear Nester Glass, and Elliot Frog & Switch (a frog was part of a railroad switch). Many facilities were located just outside the city limits in order to escape paying taxes. Nearby National City had stockyards and meatpacking plants, attracting more workers. East St. Louis was a rough industrial city, where saloons outnumbered schools and churches.
Non-whites were initially a small minority: in 1910, approximately 6,000 African Americans lived in East St. Louis, of a total population of 58,000; by 1917, the black population had increased to 10,000, or one-sixth of the total population of 60,000.
The period was one of frequent labor violence in industrial cities across the United States: employers used force to try to suppress organized labor and strikes, while workers struggled to gain increased wages and improved working conditions. Many workers were immigrants from Europe. When industries became embroiled in labor strikes, the traditionally white unions often sought to strengthen their bargaining positions by hindering or excluding black workers. Conversely, industry owners hired blacks as replacements or strikebreakers, deepening existing segregation and inter-racial hostility. Ethnicities competed economically to survive. White workers often resented black newcomers due to competition for jobs and housing and fear they would be undercut by black workers willing to accept lower wages. In East St. Louis, local politicians, company foremen, and labor union officials fanned the resentment; the approval of the local police and
National Guard
National Guard is the name used by a wide variety of current and historical uniformed organizations in different countries. The original National Guard was formed during the French Revolution around a cadre of defectors from the French Guards.
Nat ...
were later considered important in helping to escalate the rioting.
The
Springfield race riot of 1908 in nearby
Springfield, Illinois
Springfield is the capital of the U.S. state of Illinois and the county seat and largest city of Sangamon County. The city's population was 114,394 at the 2020 census, which makes it the state's seventh most-populous city, the second largest o ...
, had been an expression of the simmering tensions in the region during the
nadir of race relations.
While in
on a lecture tour, Jamaican black nationalist
Marcus Garvey
Marcus Mosiah Garvey Sr. (17 August 188710 June 1940) was a Jamaican political activist, publisher, journalist, entrepreneur, and orator. He was the founder and first President-General of the Universal Negro Improvement Association and African ...
, who founded the
UNIA
''Unia'' ( en, Dreams), released on 25 May 2007, is the fifth full-length studio album by the power metal band Sonata Arctica, following the album ''Reckoning Night''. The first single from the album was " Paid in Full", released on 27 April 2007 ...
in 1916, became aware that Louisiana planters and the city's Board of Trade were worried about losing their labor force. In a speech the following year, he said that Mayor Fred Mollman of East St. Louis had been visiting New Orleans the same week, and city leaders had asked for his assistance to help discourage black migration to the North.
In the summer of 1916, 2,500 white employees of the meatpacking industry near East St. Louis went on strike for higher wages, and the companies imported black workers as strikebreakers to replace them. Ultimately the workers won a wage increase but the companies retained nearly 800 blacks, firing as many whites after the strike, according to the former president of the Central Trades and Labor Union of East St. Louis.
This exacerbated the growing racial tension.
In the spring of 1917, the mostly white workers of the Aluminum Ore Company in East St. Louis voted to strike. The company recruited hundreds of black workers to replace them. Tensions between the groups escalated. At a labor meeting held in City Hall on May 28 and made up mostly of white workers, rumors circulated of black men fraternizing with white women.
[Rudwick, ''Race Riot at East St. Louis,'' 1964.]
Violence
Following the May 28 meeting, some 1,000–3,000 white men marched into downtown East St. Louis and began attacking African Americans on the street and in streetcars, and burning some buildings. Illinois Governor
Frank Orren Lowden
Frank Orren Lowden (January 26, 1861 – March 20, 1943) was an American Republican Party politician who served as the 25th Governor of Illinois and as a United States Representative from Illinois. He was also a candidate for the Republican pre ...
called in the National Guard to suppress the violence. Although rumors circulated that blacks were planning retaliatory attacks, conditions eased somewhat for a few weeks.
Following the May disorder, the East St. Louis Central Labor Council requested an investigation by the State Council of Defense. Its report said that "southern negroes were misled by false advertisements and unscrupulous employment agents to come to East St. Louis in such numbers under false pretenses of secure jobs and decent living quarters". The tensions between black workers and white workers quickly formed again as no solutions to their economic challenges were agreed upon.
The riot was precipitated by fatal errors. On July 1, a black Ford Model T
[Danny Wicentowski, "Remember the East St. Louis Race War"](_blank)
''Riverfront Times'', 28 June 2017; accessed 17 September 2018 occupied by white males drove through a black area of the city; passengers fired several shots into a group on the street. An hour later, a Ford containing four people, including a journalist and two police officers (Detective Sergeant Samuel Coppedge and Detective Frank Wadley), passed through the same area. Black residents, possibly assuming this car held the original attackers, opened fire on the car, killing one officer instantly and mortally wounding another.
The next day, thousands of white spectators gathered to view the detectives' bloodstained automobile.
From there they rushed into the black sections of town, south and west of the city, and began rioting.
[Buescher, John.]
East St. Louis Massacre
Teachinghistory.org
Accessed July 11, 2011. The mob beat and shot blacks on the street indiscriminately, including women and children. After cutting the water hoses of the fire department, white rioters burned entire sections of the city and shot black residents as they escaped the flames.
Claiming that "Southern negros deserve
a genuine
lynching
Lynching is an extrajudicial killing by a group. It is most often used to characterize informal public executions by a mob in order to punish an alleged transgressor, punish a convicted transgressor, or intimidate people. It can also be an ex ...
", some whites hanged several blacks.
The following day on July 3, 1917, a reporter from the ''
St. Louis Post-Dispatch'' wrote: "For an hour and a half last evening I saw the massacre of helpless negroes at Broadway and Fourth Street, in downtown East St. Louis, where black skin was death warrant."
Police's response
According to the ''St. Louis Post-Dispatch'':
All the impartial witnesses agree that the police were either indifferent or encouraged the barbarities, and that the major part of the National Guard was indifferent or inactive. No organized effort was made to protect the Negroes or disperse the murdering groups. The lack of frenzy and of a large infuriated mob made the task easy. Ten determined officers could have prevented most of the outrages. One hundred men acting with authority and vigor might have prevented any outrage.
Hundreds of blacks fled across the
Eads Bridge
The Eads Bridge is a combined road and railway bridge over the Mississippi River connecting the cities of St. Louis, Missouri and East St. Louis, Illinois. It is located on the St. Louis riverfront between Laclede's Landing, to the north, and t ...
over the
Mississippi River
The Mississippi River is the second-longest river and chief river of the second-largest drainage system in North America, second only to the Hudson Bay drainage system. From its traditional source of Lake Itasca in northern Minnesota, it f ...
to St. Louis to escape the violence, while 1,500 sought refuge in city buildings.
St. Louis institutions worked to assist the refugees, including the St. Louis chapter of the Red Cross, the Provident Association, and the Jewish Education and Charitable Association, as well as related charities. The Red Cross Emergency Committee met daily with Acting Mayor Aloe, members of his administration, and representatives of the charities to discuss how to aid the refugees.
[Oscar Leonard, "The East St. Louis Pogrom"](_blank)
''The Survey'', Volume 38, Chicago: Survey Associates, 1917, pp. 331- 333
Governor Lowden ordered in the
Illinois National Guard
The Illinois National Guard comprises both Army National Guard and Air National Guard components of Illinois. As of 2013, the Illinois National Guard has approximately 13,200 members. The National Guard is the only United States military force emp ...
, who arrived on July 3. Numerous witnesses said that the Guard initially joined in the attacks on blacks rather than stopping the riot.
[Patrick, "The Horror of the East St. Louis Massacre", ''Exodus'', February 22, 2000.] More whites joined in. ''The New York Times'' reported that "ten or fifteen young girls about 18 years old, chased a negro woman at the Relay Depot at about 5 o'clock. The girls were brandishing clubs and calling upon the men to kill the woman."
Few photographs exist of the events, as rioters attacked photographers and destroyed their cameras, and city police harassed journalists.
[Tim O'Neil]
"Look Back 250: Worker struggles, racial hatred in East St. Louis explodes in white rioting"
''St. Louis Post-Dispatch'', July 1, 2012. Accessed 16 September 2018. After the massacre, the ''St. Louis Argus'' said, "The entire country has been aroused to a sense of shame and pity by the magnitude of the national disgrace enacted by the blood-thirsty rioters in East St. Louis Monday, July 2."
Aftermath
Death toll
After the riot, varying estimates of the death toll circulated. The police chief estimated that 100 African Americans had been killed.
The renowned journalist
Ida B. Wells
Ida B. Wells (full name: Ida Bell Wells-Barnett) (July 16, 1862 – March 25, 1931) was an American investigative journalist, educator, and early leader in the civil rights movement. She was one of the founders of the National Association for ...
reported in ''
The Chicago Defender
''The Chicago Defender'' is a Chicago-based online African-American newspaper. It was founded in 1905 by Robert S. Abbott and was once considered the "most important" newspaper of its kind. Abbott's newspaper reported and campaigned against Jim ...
'' that 40–150 African-American people were killed during the July bloodshed.
The
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People
The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) is a civil rights organization in the United States, formed in 1909 as an interracial endeavor to advance justice for African Americans by a group including W. E. ...
(NAACP) estimated deaths at 100–200. Some 6,000 African Americans were left homeless after their neighborhoods were burned. A Congressional Investigating Committee, which met in the fall of that year, concluded that no precise death toll could be determined, but reported that at least 8 whites and 39 African Americans died. While the local coroner had documented nine white deaths, the deaths of African-American victims were less clearly recorded. Activists who disputed the committee's conclusions about deaths argued that the true number of deaths would never be known because many black corpses were not recovered or did not pass through the hands of undertakers, who reported to the coroner.
Black community's reaction
The ferocious brutality of the attacks and the failure of authorities to protect civilian lives contributed to the radicalization of many blacks in St. Louis and the nation.
[James, Winston. (1998)]
''Holding Aloft the Banner of Ethiopia: Caribbean Radicalism in Early Twentieth-century America''
p. 96. Marcus Garvey
Marcus Mosiah Garvey Sr. (17 August 188710 June 1940) was a Jamaican political activist, publisher, journalist, entrepreneur, and orator. He was the founder and first President-General of the Universal Negro Improvement Association and African ...
, black nationalist leader of the
UNIA
''Unia'' ( en, Dreams), released on 25 May 2007, is the fifth full-length studio album by the power metal band Sonata Arctica, following the album ''Reckoning Night''. The first single from the album was " Paid in Full", released on 27 April 2007 ...
from Jamaica, declared in a July 8 speech that the riot proved that the United States' claim to be a "dispenser of democracy" and its criticism of the Empire of Germany for human rights abuses in the Great War was hypocritical. Garvey called the violence "one of the bloodiest outrages against mankind" and a "wholesale massacre of our people," insisting that "This is no time for fine words, but a time to lift one's voice against the savagery of a people who claim to be the dispensers of democracy."
In
New York City
New York, often called New York City or NYC, is the List of United States cities by population, most populous city in the United States. With a 2020 population of 8,804,190 distributed over , New York City is also the L ...
on July 28, ten thousand black people marched down Fifth Avenue in a
Silent Parade
The Negro Silent Protest Parade, commonly known as the Silent Parade, was a silent march of about 10,000 African Americans along Fifth Avenue starting at 57th Street in New York City on July 28, 1917. The event was organized by the NAACP, church ...
, protesting the East St. Louis Riot. They carried signs that highlighted protests about the riot. The march was organized by the NAACP (then based in New York), leader
W. E. B. Du Bois, and groups in
Harlem
Harlem is a neighborhood in Upper Manhattan, New York City. It is bounded roughly by the Hudson River on the west; the Harlem River and 155th Street (Manhattan), 155th Street on the north; Fifth Avenue on the east; and 110th Street (Manhattan), ...
. Women and children were dressed in white; the men were dressed in black.
The NAACP had arranged for journalists to photograph the destruction in East St. Louis left behind after the riot: houses, stores, churches, and brick warehouses were all left in ruins. These photographs were published in the September 1917 issue of ''
The Crisis
''The Crisis'' is the official magazine of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). It was founded in 1910 by W. E. B. Du Bois (editor), Oswald Garrison Villard, J. Max Barber, Charles Edward Russell, Kelly Mi ...
'', the organization's magazine.
Business community's reaction
On July 6, representatives of the East St. Louis Chamber of Commerce met with the mayor to demand the resignation of the Police Chief and Night Police Chief, or radical reform. They were outraged about the rioting and accused the mayor of having allowed a "reign of lawlessness". In addition to the high death toll, the riot had caused extensive property damage to city businesses and houses. The
Southern Railway Company's warehouse was burned, with the loss of more than 100 car loads of merchandise, worth more than $525,000 to the company; some 44 freight cars, and 312 houses were also burned. A white-owned theatre, valued at more than $100,000, was also destroyed.
Total property damage was estimated at $400,000
(equivalent to $ million in ).
Government's reaction
In a mass meeting in
Carnegie Hall
Carnegie Hall ( ) is a concert venue in Midtown Manhattan in New York City. It is at 881 Seventh Avenue (Manhattan), Seventh Avenue, occupying the east side of Seventh Avenue between West 56th Street (Manhattan), 56th and 57th Street (Manhatta ...
on July 12 in New York City,
Samuel Gompers
Samuel Gompers (; January 27, 1850December 13, 1924) was a British-born American cigar maker, labor union leader and a key figure in American labor history. Gompers founded the American Federation of Labor (AFL) and served as the organization's ...
, the president of the
American Federation of Labor
The American Federation of Labor (A.F. of L.) was a national federation of labor unions in the United States that continues today as the AFL-CIO. It was founded in Columbus, Ohio, in 1886 by an alliance of craft unions eager to provide mutu ...
, tried to diminish the role in the massacre attributed to trade unions. He said that an investigation was needed in order to place blame.
Theodore Roosevelt
Theodore Roosevelt Jr. ( ; October 27, 1858 – January 6, 1919), often referred to as Teddy or by his initials, T. R., was an American politician, statesman, soldier, conservationist, naturalist, historian, and writer who served as the 26t ...
, former president of the United States, responded, "Mr. Gompers, why don't I accuse afterwards? I'll answer now, when murder is to be answered." Roosevelt also was reported to say, "I will go to the extreme to bring justice to the laboring man, but when there is murder I will put him down."
Congressman
Leonidas C. Dyer
Leonidas Carstarphen Dyer (June 11, 1871 – December 15, 1957) was an American politician, reformer, civil rights activist, and military officer. A Republican, he served eleven terms in the U.S. Congress as a U.S. Representative from Missouri ...
(R-Mo.), a representative from a St. Louis urban district, asked for a federal investigation. President
Woodrow Wilson
Thomas Woodrow Wilson (December 28, 1856February 3, 1924) was an American politician and academic who served as the 28th president of the United States from 1913 to 1921. A member of the Democratic Party, Wilson served as the president of ...
wrote to him on July 28, saying that special agents of the Department of Justice could not find enough evidence to justify federal action in the matter. He said: "I am informed that the attorney general of the State of Illinois has gone to East St. Louis to add his efforts to those of the officials of the county and city in pressing prosecutions under the State laws. The representatives of the Department of Justice are so far as possible lending aid to the State authorities in their efforts to restore tranquility and guard against further outbreaks."
Hearings on the massacre before the Committee on Rules and the House of Representatives began on August 3, 1917. A federal investigation was eventually opened.
In October the state tried 25 blacks and 10 whites on charges related to the massacre, including homicide and incitement to riot. Lena Cook survived an attack to testify against two white men, who had killed her husband, Ed Cook, and son, 14-year-old Lurizza Beard; they were convicted of murder. Included among the defendants was
Dr. LeRoy Bundy, a black dentist and prominent leader in the East St. Louis black community. He was formally charged with inciting a riot. The trial was held in the county court of
St. Clair County, Illinois. Bundy, along with 34 other defendants, of whom 10 were white, was convicted and sentenced to prison in connection with the riot.
[''The Chicago Daily Tribune'', March 29, 1918.] Another source said that a total of nine whites and twelve blacks were convicted of serious crimes and sent to prison.
See also
*
List of incidents of civil unrest in the United States
Listed are major episodes of civil unrest in the United States. This list does not include the numerous incidents of destruction and violence associated with various sporting events.
18th century
*1783 – Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, June 20 ...
References
Sources
*Barnes, Harper. ''Never Been a Time: The 1917 Race Riot That Sparked the Civil Rights Movement'', New York: Walker & Company, June 24, 2008. .
*Fitch, Robert. ''Solidarity for Sale.'' Cambridge, Mass.: Perseus Books Group, 2006. .
*Gibson, Robert A. ''The Negro Holocaust: Lynching and Race Riots in the United States, 1880–1950.'' New Haven: Yale University, 1979.
*Heaps, Willard A. "Target of Prejudice: The Negro", In ''Riots, USA 1765–1970.'' New York: The Seabury Press, 1970.
*James, Winston. ''Holding Aloft the Banner of Ethiopia: Caribbean Radicalism in Early Twentieth-century America, Verso, 1998
*Leonard, Mary Delach. "E. St. Louis Riot." ''St. Louis Post-Dispatch.'' January 13, 2004.
*Lumpkins, Charles L. ''American Pogrom: The East St. Louis Race Riot and Black Politics.'' Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 2008. , .
*McLaughlin, Malcolm. ''Power, Community, and Racial Killing in East St. Louis.'' New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005.
excerpt*McLaughlin, Malcolm. "Reconsidering the East St Louis Race Riot of 1917", ''International Review of Social History.'' 47:2 (August 2002).
*"Race Rioters Fire East St. Louis and Shoot or Hang Many Negroes". ''The New York Times.'' July 3, 1917.
*Patrick, James. "The Horror of the East St. Louis Massacre." ''Exodus.'' February 22, 2000.
*Rudwick, Elliott M. ''Race Riot at East St. Louis.'' Carbondale, Ill.: Southern Illinois University Press, 1964.
*Wells, Ida B. ''Crusade for Justice: The Autobiography of Ida B. Wells.'' Rev. edn. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991. .
External links
''The Crisis Magazine'' August 1917 report on East St Louis Riot, pp. 177–178.
''The Crisis Magazine'', September 1917, pp. 219–237, report on the East St Louis riot''The Crisis Magazine'' April 1922, pp. 17–22.
''The American Experience.'' PBS.com.
"Useful readings on the Riots" compiled by Southern Illinois University Edwardsville's Institute For Urban Research
series of archive articles, photos, map, and oral readings on th
from June 27 to July 3, 2017.
*Tim O'Neil
''St. Louis Post-Dispatch'', July 1, 2012, an
''St. Louis Post-Dispatch'', September 21, 2014.
Riot at East St. Louis, Illinois : hearings before the Committee on Rules House of Representatives, Sixty-fifth Congress, first session, on H.J. res. 118, August 3, 1917
{{Authority control
1917 in Illinois
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Massacres in the United States
May 1917 events
Racially motivated violence against African Americans
Riots and civil disorder in Illinois
United States home front during World War I
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