Electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) waste, or
e-waste, is illegally brought into African states every year. A minimum of 250,000 metric tons of e-waste comes into the continent, and according to the
, the majority of it in
West Africa
West Africa or Western Africa is the westernmost region of Africa. The United Nations defines Western Africa as the 16 countries of Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Mali, Maurit ...
enters from
Europe
Europe is a large peninsula conventionally considered a continent in its own right because of its great physical size and the weight of its history and traditions. Europe is also considered a Continent#Subcontinents, subcontinent of Eurasia ...
. Developed countries commodify underdeveloped African states as dumping grounds for their e-waste, and due to poor regulations and a lack of enforcement institutions, illegal dumping is promoted.
Currently, the largest e-waste dumping site in
Africa
Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent, after Asia in both cases. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of Earth's total surface area ...
is
Agbogbloshie
Agbogbloshie is a nickname of a commercial district on the Korle Lagoon of the Odaw River, near the center of Accra, Ghana's capital city in the Greater Accra region. Near the slum called "Old Fadama", the Agbogbloshie site became known as a de ...
in Ghana.
While states like
Nigeria
Nigeria ( ), , ig, Naìjíríyà, yo, Nàìjíríà, pcm, Naijá , ff, Naajeeriya, kcg, Naijeriya officially the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a country in West Africa. It is situated between the Sahel to the north and the Gulf o ...
do not contain e-waste sites as concentrated as Agbogbloshie, they do have several small sites.
Two e-waste regulatory institutions exist in Africa: the
Basel Convention
The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal, usually known as the Basel Convention, is an international treaty that was designed to reduce the movements of hazardous waste between nations ...
and
Bamako Convention
The Bamako Convention (in full: Bamako Convention on the Ban of the Import into Africa and the Control of Transboundary Movement and Management of Hazardous Wastes within Africa) is a treaty of African nations prohibiting the import of any hazardou ...
.
Because the former institution perceives e-waste as hazardous, it seeks to circumvent adverse public health outcomes that derive from trading EEE. Informal dumping sites burn hazardous materials, subsequently exposing individuals to toxic fumes, contaminating crop production, etc.
In particular, Europe and the UK export e-waste into several African states often as donations or second-hand products.
African states themselves produce between ~50 and 85% of their e-waste with the rest being imported from developed nations.
Economically, e-waste can carry high value materials which can lead to financial opportunity for some African states. E-waste materials sourced from Africa amounted to $3.2 billion US dollars in 2019, therefore making trading and repairing them economic pursuits for poorer individuals.
As such, global trade of e-waste lends itself to a business-like system in certain African states like Ghana.
Extracting raw materials like copper is frequently executed by untrained and informal workers that need protective gear and are near localities where children can be exposed.
Several economic, health, and political implications derive from the trade of these materials.
Production and Trade of E-Waste
![Ewaste-pile](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/30/Ewaste-pile.jpg)
E-waste is categorized as used EEE including refrigerators, cell phones, and computers.
Africa has seen a significant usage of personal computers and mobile phones in the past decade.
The continent produced 2.5 kg per capita of e-waste in 2019, which is the lowest rate in the world.
60% of e-waste is imported into the continent, and it is often processed manually with the intent to resell.
The
Port of Lagos in Nigeria is a primary location for importing EEE and its capital, Ikeja, stores obsolete e-waste.
The United States and Europe deliver EEE daily to Ikeja's marketplace, and approximately 25 to 75% of it is irreparable.
The absence of regulatory agencies in developed countries allows them to export into vulnerable checkpoints in Nigeria, thereby exacerbating the growing amount of e-waste.
Simultaneously, according to the United Nations Environment Programme, Ghana and West Africa themselves produces 85 percent of e-waste that ultimately remains in Ghana.
The same UN programme determined 215,000 metric tons of EEE were imported into Ghana in 2009, with 15 percent being dumped into the Ghana's
Agbogbloshie
Agbogbloshie is a nickname of a commercial district on the Korle Lagoon of the Odaw River, near the center of Accra, Ghana's capital city in the Greater Accra region. Near the slum called "Old Fadama", the Agbogbloshie site became known as a de ...
dump site.
More broadly,
Ghana
Ghana (; tw, Gaana, ee, Gana), officially the Republic of Ghana, is a country in West Africa. It abuts the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean to the south, sharing borders with Ivory Coast in the west, Burkina Faso in the north, and To ...
, Nigeria, and
Tanzania
Tanzania (; ), officially the United Republic of Tanzania ( sw, Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania), is a country in East Africa within the African Great Lakes region. It borders Uganda to the north; Kenya to the northeast; Comoro Islands and ...
receive e-waste from Europe and the UK.
"Leakage" is used to describe the illegal exportation of waste.
The
Basel Action Network
The Basel Action Network (BAN), a charitable non-governmental organization, works to combat the export of toxic waste from technology and other products from industrialized societies to developing countries. BAN is based in Seattle, Washington, ...
(BAN) tracked e-waste arriving to recycling centers in ten European countries and discovered 64% of it subsequently being shipped to Africa.
Additionally, the BAN identified the UK as the main exporter of EEE to underdeveloped countries. It approximates Europe countries export 352,474 metric tons to developing countries nationally.
Economic Conditions and Impacts
Gold
Gold is a chemical element with the symbol Au (from la, aurum) and atomic number 79. This makes it one of the higher atomic number elements that occur naturally. It is a bright, slightly orange-yellow, dense, soft, malleable, and ductile met ...
, copper, and other valuable metals and minerals are sought after in e-waste, and despite the environmental and public health effects, people informally work in dumping sites.
Agbogbloshie provides work for an estimated 4500 to 6000 people, and byproducts from e-waste have made it a global business.
Roughly USD 105 to 268 million is generated by the market while also benefiting 200,000 people.
Also in Ghana,
aluminum
Aluminium (aluminum in American and Canadian English) is a chemical element with the symbol Al and atomic number 13. Aluminium has a density lower than those of other common metals, at approximately one third that of steel. It has ...
sourced from e-waste is repurposed to manufacture cooking pots and are then sold in the market.
In
Egypt
Egypt ( ar, مصر , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia via a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Mediter ...
, recycling is a market necessity as second-hand and third-hand products are sought out by users.
Within the past 8 years, cell phone and computer purchases increased greater than 20 times.
The informal sector of its economy collects and moves e-waste, pulls valuable materials out of it, and sells those materials to recyclers among other consumers.
Additional materials can be derived from e-waste and recyclers can barter them to companies.
Circuit boards
A printed circuit board (PCB; also printed wiring board or PWB) is a medium used in electrical and electronic engineering to connect electronic components to one another in a controlled manner. It takes the form of a laminated sandwich struc ...
and wires can be burned for copper without state interference.
In general, although the waste is dangerous to handle, few workers wear protective gloves, goggles, etc.
Environmental and Human Health Impacts
![Agbogbloshie, Ghana - September 2019](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/Agbogbloshie%2C_Ghana_-_September_2019.jpg)
In 2012, a Fieldwork study conducted around Agbogbloshie to assess local concerns about informal e-waste settlements revealed that 96% of respondents perceived a rise in health concerns as a result of the waste settlements and processes. 30% of respondents called into question the breeding of mosquitoes and subsequent rise in
malaria
Malaria is a mosquito-borne infectious disease that affects humans and other animals. Malaria causes symptoms that typically include fever, tiredness, vomiting, and headaches. In severe cases, it can cause jaundice, seizures, coma, or death. S ...
risk, while another 40% recalled bodily injury as a result of accidents in the landfills themselves. The burning of e-waste emits toxic particulate matter into the atmosphere from metals and plastics used in devices, cords, circuit boards, etc. Breathing in these toxins often results in respiratory problems for nearby populations. Other symptoms include headaches, skin irritation, gastrointestinal diseases, liver complications, and poisoned fetuses.
Chemicals such as
mercury
Mercury commonly refers to:
* Mercury (planet), the nearest planet to the Sun
* Mercury (element), a metallic chemical element with the symbol Hg
* Mercury (mythology), a Roman god
Mercury or The Mercury may also refer to:
Companies
* Merc ...
,
copper
Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu (from la, cuprum) and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of pure copper has a pinkis ...
,
lead
Lead is a chemical element with the symbol Pb (from the Latin ) and atomic number 82. It is a heavy metal that is denser than most common materials. Lead is soft and malleable, and also has a relatively low melting point. When freshly cu ...
, and
arsenic
Arsenic is a chemical element with the symbol As and atomic number 33. Arsenic occurs in many minerals, usually in combination with sulfur and metals, but also as a pure elemental crystal. Arsenic is a metalloid. It has various allotropes, but ...
leak out of e-waste into soil and water streams, creating an accumulation of harmful chemicals in the ecosystem and its food chains. The expansion of e-waste sites and unsatisfactory waste management practices results in negative impacts on agriculture: space becomes limited for grazing animals and crop production potential.
Local Interaction
A 2021 survey of 216 students conducted at
Lupane State University
Lupane State University (LSU) was established in 2005 in Lupane, Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe (), officially the Republic of Zimbabwe, is a landlocked country located in Southeast Africa, between the Zambezi and Limpopo Rivers, bordered by South Af ...
in
Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe (), officially the Republic of Zimbabwe, is a landlocked country located in Southeast Africa, between the Zambezi and Limpopo Rivers, bordered by South Africa to the south, Botswana to the south-west, Zambia to the north, and Mozam ...
reveals that 97% of students were unaware of national e-waste recycling procedures, and almost 64% admitted to disposing of EEE with municipal waste, though aware of its negative health impacts. In Zimbabwe, improper management of e-waste is acknowledged by local populations as a problem, but there are no known efforts to mandate proper management procedures.
Known Dumping Sites
*
Olusosun landfill
*
Agbogbloshie
Agbogbloshie is a nickname of a commercial district on the Korle Lagoon of the Odaw River, near the center of Accra, Ghana's capital city in the Greater Accra region. Near the slum called "Old Fadama", the Agbogbloshie site became known as a de ...
Lagos's E-Waste Management
Nigeria and Ghana are among the world's leading cities for electronic waste. Despite bans on importing hazardous waste found in international agreements like the
Basel Convention
The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal, usually known as the Basel Convention, is an international treaty that was designed to reduce the movements of hazardous waste between nations ...
, the
Minamata Convention on Mercury
The Minamata Convention on Mercury is an international treaty designed to protect human health and the environment from anthropogenic emissions and releases of mercury and mercury compounds. The convention was a result of three years of meetin ...
, and the
Stockholm Convention
Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants is an international environmental treaty, signed on 22 May 2001 in Stockholm and effective from 17 May 2004, that aims to eliminate or restrict the production and use of persistent organic ...
, fairly relaxed customs systems allow e-waste to travel into Nigeria. Every year, this amounts to approximately 71,000 tonnes of electronic waste imported.
United Nations Environment Programme
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) is responsible for coordinating responses to environmental issues within the United Nations system. It was established by Maurice Strong, its first director, after the United Nations Conference on th ...
(UNEP) has partnered with
Nigeria's National Environmental Standards and Regulations Enforcement Agency to implement a sustainable model for e-waste recycling in order to prevent overflowing landfills. However, scrapping and reselling makes up a large part of how e-waste is managed in the country. Despite hazardous conditions, such as infections and neuro developmental issues, and laws against metal extraction methods, such as burning plastic cables and acid leaching, local civilians run a large informal sector of recycling that is favored by international entities for its evasion of production cost, regulation, and taxation.
In 1977, following an oil boom and subsequent influx of migrants, the city of Lagos founded the
Lagos Waste Management Authority (LAWMA), formerly known as
Lagos State Refuse Disposal Board (LSRDB). The poorly managed waste management systems in the 1970s necessitated the establishment of a state-funded institution to monitor waste practices and health implications.
Accra's E-Waste Management
Sub-Saharan African cities, like the capital of Ghana (i.e., Accra) have a deficit of public health infrastructure, including sanitation services and waste management.
Despite the
Agbogbloshie Scrap Dealers Association (ASDA) showing evidence of how workers can be harmed at the dumping site, workers are defiant to banning it due to employment opportunities.
Accra's municipal government, the Accra Metropolitan Assembly, are privy to the site's health and environmental risks, but are not proactive about the problems.
[{{Cite journal , last1=Daum , first1=Kurt , last2=Stoler , first2=Justin , last3=Grant , first3=Richard , date=2017-01-29 , title=Toward a More Sustainable Trajectory for E-Waste Policy: A Review of a Decade of E-Waste Research in Accra, Ghana , journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health , language=en , volume=14 , issue=2 , pages=135 , doi=10.3390/ijerph14020135 , issn=1660-4601 , pmc=5334689 , pmid=28146075, doi-access=free ]
Electronic connectors can contain metals including copper, silver, and gold, which is why workers are incentivized to recycle. However, extracting these metals calls for professional expertise and equipment, which workers tend to not possess.
One method workers use to remove copper from rubber objects is through burning, which yields harmful smoke.
It has been suggested, through blood samples, that workers heavy metals and other materials concentrated at high levels in their blood stream, in addition to carcinogens.
Apart from the actual site's atmosphere being permeated by toxic fumes, people in nearby areas, like the Old Fadama and those working in the business district, are prone to exposure.
References
Electronic waste in Africa
Occupational safety and health