The Drosophilidae are a diverse,

cosmopolitan Cosmopolitan may refer to: Food and drink * Cosmopolitan (cocktail), also known as a "Cosmo" History * Rootless cosmopolitan, a Soviet derogatory epithet during Joseph Stalin's anti-Semitic campaign of 1949–1953 Hotels and resorts * Cosmopoli ...

family Family (from la, familia) is a group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or affinity (by marriage or other relationship). The purpose of the family is to maintain the well-being of its members and of society. Idea ...

of flies, which includes species called fruit flies, although they are more accurately referred to as vinegar or pomace flies. Another distantly related family of flies,

Tephritidae The Tephritidae are one of two fly families referred to as fruit flies, the other family being the Drosophilidae. The family Tephritidae does not include the biological model organisms of the genus ''Drosophila'' (in the family Drosophilidae), ...

, are true fruit flies because they are frugivorous, and include apple maggot flies and many pests. The best known species of the Drosophilidae is ''

Drosophila melanogaster ''Drosophila melanogaster'' is a species of fly (the taxonomic order Diptera) in the family Drosophilidae. The species is often referred to as the fruit fly or lesser fruit fly, or less commonly the " vinegar fly" or "pomace fly". Starting with ...

'', within the

genus Genus ( plural genera ) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms as well as viruses. In the hierarchy of biological classification, genus comes above species and below family. In binomial nom ...

Drosophila ''Drosophila'' () is a genus of flies, belonging to the family Drosophilidae, whose members are often called "small fruit flies" or (less frequently) pomace flies, vinegar flies, or wine flies, a reference to the characteristic of many speci ...

'', also called the "fruit fly." ''Drosophila melanogaster'' is used extensively for studies concerning

genetics Genetics is the study of genes, genetic variation, and heredity in organisms.Hartl D, Jones E (2005) It is an important branch in biology because heredity is vital to organisms' evolution. Gregor Mendel, a Moravian Augustinian friar work ...

, development,

physiology Physiology (; ) is the scientific study of functions and mechanisms in a living system. As a sub-discipline of biology, physiology focuses on how organisms, organ systems, individual organs, cells, and biomolecules carry out the chemic ...

ecology Ecology () is the study of the relationships between living organisms, including humans, and their physical environment. Ecology considers organisms at the individual, population, community, ecosystem, and biosphere level. Ecology overl ...

and

behaviour Behavior (American English) or behaviour (British English) is the range of actions and mannerisms made by individuals, organisms, systems or artificial entities in some environment. These systems can include other systems or organisms as wel ...

. Many fundamental biological mechanisms were discovered first in ''D. melanogaster.'' The fruit fly is mostly composed of post-mitotic cells, has a very short lifespan, and shows gradual aging. As in other species, temperature influences the life history of the animal. Several genes have been identified that can be manipulated to extend the lifespan of these insects. Additionally, ''

Drosophila subobscura ''Drosophila subobscura'' is a species of fruit fly in the family Drosophilidae. Originally found around the Mediterranean, it has spread to most of Europe and the Near East. It has been introduced into the west coasts of Canada, the United St ...

,'' also within the genus ''Drosophila'', has been reputed as a model organism for evolutionary-biological studies, along with ''D. sechellia'' for the evolution of host specialization on the toxic noni fruit and ''Scaptomyza flava'' for the evolution of

herbivory A herbivore is an animal anatomically and physiologically adapted to eating plant material, for example foliage or marine algae, for the main component of its diet. As a result of their plant diet, herbivorous animals typically have mouthpart ...

and specialist on toxic mustard leaves.

Economic significance

Generally, drosophilids are considered to be nuisance flies rather than pests, since most species breed in rotting material. '' Zaprionus indianus'' is unusual among Drosophilidae species in being a serious, primary pest of at least one commercial fruit,

fig The fig is the edible fruit of ''Ficus carica'', a species of small tree in the flowering plant family Moraceae. Native to the Mediterranean and western Asia, it has been cultivated since ancient times and is now widely grown throughout the world ...

s in Brazil. Another species, '' Drosophila suzukii'', infests thin-skinned fruit such as raspberries and

cherries A cherry is the fruit of many plants of the genus '' Prunus'', and is a fleshy drupe (stone fruit). Commercial cherries are obtained from cultivars of several species, such as the sweet ''Prunus avium'' and the sour ''Prunus cerasus''. The ...

and can be a serious agricultural pest. The leaf mining '' Scaptomyza flava'', which is nested in the genus ''Drosophila''

phylogenetically In biology, phylogenetics (; from Greek φυλή/ φῦλον [] "tribe, clan, race", and wikt:γενετικός, γενετικός [] "origin, source, birth") is the study of the evolutionary history and relationships among or within groups ...

, is an obligate

leaf miner A leaf miner is any one of numerous species of insects in which the larval stage lives in, and eats, the leaf tissue of plants. The vast majority of leaf-mining insects are moths ( Lepidoptera), sawflies ( Symphyta, the mother clade of wasp ...

of mustard plants, including the model plant ''

Arabidopsis thaliana ''Arabidopsis thaliana'', the thale cress, mouse-ear cress or arabidopsis, is a small flowering plant native to Eurasia and Africa. ''A. thaliana'' is considered a weed; it is found along the shoulders of roads and in disturbed land. A winter ...

'' and is a major pest of salad brassicas in New Zealand and an emerging pest of canola in the UK. ''Drosophila repleta'' larvae inhabit drains and spread bacteria. Fruit flies in general are considered as a common vector in propagating

acetic acid bacteria Acetic acid bacteria (AAB) are a group of Gram-negative bacteria which oxidize sugars or ethanol and produce acetic acid during fermentation. The acetic acid bacteria consist of 10 genera in the family Acetobacteraceae. Several species of acetic ...

in nature. This often ruins the alcohol fermentation process and can ruin beer or wine by turning it into

vinegar Vinegar is an aqueous solution of acetic acid and trace compounds that may include flavorings. Vinegar typically contains 5–8% acetic acid by volume. Usually, the acetic acid is produced by a double fermentation, converting simple sugars to eth ...

. There are sinking traps available on the market for this nuisance, but one quick way to strongly limit the extent of it is to vacuum clean the flies both at rest and in their slow flight.

Identification

The diagnostic characteristics for Drosophilidae include the presence of an incomplete

subcostal vein The subcostal vein is a vein in the human body that runs along the bottom of the twelfth rib. It has the same essential qualities as the posterior intercostal veins The posterior intercostal veins are veins that drain the intercostal spaces post ...

, two breaks in the costal vein, a small anal cell in the

wing A wing is a type of fin that produces lift while moving through air or some other fluid. Accordingly, wings have streamlined cross-sections that are subject to aerodynamic forces and act as airfoils. A wing's aerodynamic efficiency is e ...

, convergent postocellar bristles; and usually three frontal bristles on each side of the head, one directed forward and the other two directed rearward. More extensive identification characteristics can be found in "''Drosophila'': A Guide to Species Identification and Use" by Therese A. Markow and Patrick O'Grady, (Academic Press, 2005) or "''Drosophila'': A Laboratory Handbook" by M. Ashburner, K. Golic, S. Hawley, (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 2005).

Anti-parasitic behavior

Of their many defenses against parasites, when ''Drosophila melanogaster'' flies see female larval endoparasitoid wasps, they switch to laying their eggs in alcohol-laden food sources such as rotting fruit. Doing so protects the flies from becoming host to the larvae, as the wasps have a low alcohol tolerance. This oviposition behavior change only occurs upon seeing the female wasp larva and does not take place in the presence of the male wasp larva.

Mutualism

There is evidence to support that pathogens living within certain flies are beneficial to the behavior and survival of the host. One such example of this is in the fly ''Scaptomyza flava,'' which carries the pathogen ''

Pseudomonas syringae ''Pseudomonas syringae'' is a rod-shaped, Gram-negative bacterium with polar flagella. As a plant pathogen, it can infect a wide range of species, and exists as over 50 different pathovars, all of which are available to researchers from inte ...

'' in exchange for the pathogen damaging the anti-herbivore defenses of main food source for the fly, plants in the family

Brassicaceae Brassicaceae () or (the older) Cruciferae () is a medium-sized and economically important family of flowering plants commonly known as the mustards, the crucifers, or the cabbage family. Most are herbaceous plants, while some are shrubs. The leav ...

Phylogeny

The family contains more than 4,000 species classified under 75 genera. Recently, a comprehensive phylogenetic classification of the genera based on both molecular and morphological characters has been published. * Subfamily Drosophilinae Rondani, 1856: ** Tribe Colocasiomyini Okada, 1989: *** Genus '' Baeodrosophila'' Wheeler & Takada, 1964 *** Genus '' Balara'' Bock, 1982 *** Genus '' Chymomyza'' Czerny, 1903 *** Genus '' Colocasiomyia'' de Meijere, 1914 *** Genus '' Lissocephala'' Malloch, 1929 *** Genus '' Neotanygastrella'' Duda, 1925 *** Genus '' Phorticella'' Duda, 1924 *** Genus '' Scaptodrosophila'' Duda, 1923 *** Genus ''

Protochymomyza ''Chymomyza'' is a genus of vinegar flies (insects in the family Drosophilidae). Species *''Chymomyza albitarsis, C. albitarsis'' (Friedrich Georg Hendel, Hendel, 1917) *''Chymomyza aldrichii, C. aldrichii'' Sturtevant, 1916 *''Chymomyza amoena, ...

'' Grimaldi, 1987 ** Tribe Drosophilini Okada, 1989: *** Genus '' Arengomyia'' Yafuso & Toda, 2008 *** Genus '' Bialba'' Bock, 1989 *** Genus '' Calodrosophila'' Wheeler & Takada, 1964 *** Genus '' Celidosoma'' Hardy, 1965 *** Genus '' Collessia'' Bock, 1982 *** Genus '' Dettopsomyia'' Lamb, 1914 *** Genus '' Dichaetophora'' Duda, 1940 *** Genus '' Dicladochaeta'' Malloch, 1932 *** Genus ''

'' Fallén, 1823 *** Genus '' Hirtodrosophila'' Duda, 1923 *** Genus '' Hypselothyrea'' Okada, 1956 *** Genus '' Idiomyia'' Grimshaw, 1901 (Hawaiian Drosophila) *** Genus '' Jeannelopsis'' Séguy, 1938 *** Genus '' Laccodrosophila'' Duda, 1927 *** Genus '' Liodrosophila'' Duda, 1922 *** Genus '' Lordiphosa'' Basden, 1961 *** Genus ''

Microdrosophila ''Microdrosophila'' is a genus of vinegar flies, insects in the family Drosophilidae. There are at least 70 described species in ''Microdrosophila''. Species These 76 species belong to the genus ''Microdrosophila'': * '' Microdrosophila acrista ...

'' Malloch, 1921 *** Genus '' Miomyia'' Grimaldi, 1987 *** Genus '' Mulgravea'' Bock, 1982 *** Genus '' Mycodrosophila'' Oldenberg, 1914 *** Genus '' Palmomyia'' Grimaldi, 2003 *** Genus '' Paraliodrosophila'' Duda, 1925 *** Genus '' Paramycodrosophila'' Duda, 1924 *** Genus '' Poliocephala'' Bock, 1989 *** Genus '' Samoaia'' Malloch, 1934 *** Genus '' Scaptomyza'' Hardy, 1849 *** Genus '' Sphaerogastrella'' Duda, 1922 *** Genus '' Styloptera'' Duda, 1924 *** Genus '' Tambourella'' Wheeler, 1957 *** Genus '' Zaprionus'' Coquillett, 1902 *** Genus '' Zaropunis'' Tsacas, 1990 *** Genus '' Zapriothrica'' Wheeler, 1956 *** Genus '' Zygothrica'' Wiedemann, 1830 ** Incertae sedis: *** Genus '' Marquesia'' Malloch, 1932 * Subfamily Steganinae Hendel, 1917: ** Tribe Gitonini Grimaldi, 1990: *** Genus '' Allopygaea'' Tsacas, 2000 *** Genus '' Acletoxenus'' Frauenfeld, 1868 *** Genus '' Amiota'' Loew, 1862 *** Genus '' Apenthecia'' Tsacas, 1983 *** Genus '' Apsiphortica'' Okada, 1971 *** Genus '' Cacoxenus'' Loew, 1858 *** Genus '' Crincosia'' Bock, 1982 *** Genus '' Electrophortica'' Hennig, 1965 *** Genus '' Erima'' Kertész, 1899 *** Genus '' Gitona'' Meigen, 1830 *** Genus '' Hyalistata'' Wheeler, 1960 *** Genus '' Luzonimyia'' Malloch, 1926 *** Genus '' Mayagueza'' Wheeler, 1960 *** Genus '' Paracacoxenus'' Hardy & Wheeler, 1960 *** Genus '' Paraleucophenga'' Hendel, 1914 *** Genus '' Paraphortica'' Duda, 1934 *** Genus '' Phortica'' Schiner, 1862 *** Genus '' Pseudiastata'' Coquillett, 1901 *** Genus '' Pseudocacoxenus'' Duda, 1925 *** Genus '' Rhinoleucophenga'' Hendel, 1917 *** Genus '' Soederbomia'' Hendel, 1938 *** Genus '' Trachyleucophenga'' Hendel, 1917 ** Tribe Steganini Okada, 1989: *** Genus '' Eostegana'' Hendel, 1913 *** Genus '' Leucophenga'' Mik, 1866 *** Genus '' Pararhinoleucophenga'' Duda, 1924 *** Genus '' Parastegana'' Okada, 1971 *** Genus '' Pseudostegana'' Okada, 1978 *** Genus ''

Stegana ''Stegana'' is a genus of vinegar flies, insects in the family Drosophilidae Seven species complexes have been established based on morphological data: ''S. biprotrusa'' (Chen & Aotsuka, 2004), ''S. castanea'' (Okada, 1988), ''S. coleoptrata'' ( ...

'' Meigen, 1830 ** Incertae sedis: *** Genus '' Neorhinoleucophenga'' Duda, 1924 *** Genus '' Pyrgometopa'' Kertész, 1901 Image:sa_fruitfly3.jpg , Close-up of fruit fly proboscis Image:sa_fruitfly4.jpg , Front view Image:fruit_fly5.jpg image:Drosophilidae compound eye edit1.jpg , Drosophilidae

compound eye A compound eye is a visual organ found in arthropods such as insects and crustaceans. It may consist of thousands of ommatidia, which are tiny independent photoreception units that consist of a cornea, lens, and photoreceptor cells which disti ...

References

External links

Diptera.info photo galleryFamily Drosophilidae at EOL
images {{Authority control Brachycera families Taxa named by Camillo Rondani