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In India, a devadasi was a female artist who was dedicated to the worship and service of a deity or a temple for the rest of her life. The dedication took place in a ceremony that was somewhat similar to a marriage ceremony. In addition to taking care of the temple and performing rituals, these women also learned and practiced classical Indian artistic traditions such as
Bharatanatyam Bharatanatyam () is a major form of Indian classical dance that originated in Tamil Nadu. It is one of the eight widely recognized Indian classical dance forms, and expresses South Indian religious themes and spiritual ideas, particularly of ...
, Mohiniyattam, Kuchipudi, and
Odissi Odissi (), also referred to as Orissi in old literature, is a major ancient Indian classical dance that originated in the temples of Odisha – an eastern coastal state of India. After becoming Devadasis, the women would spend their time learning religious rites, rituals, and dances. Devadasis were expected to live a life of celibacy, however, there have been instances of exceptions. During the period of British rule in the Indian subcontinent, kings who were the patrons of temples lost their power, thus the temple artist communities also lost their significance. As a result, Devadasis were left without their traditional means of support and patronage and were now commonly associated with temple prostitution. The practice of Devadasi was banned during British rule, starting with the Bombay Devadasi Protection Act in 1934. The colonial view of Devadasi practices remains debated as the British colonial government were unable to distinguish the Devadasis from non-religious street dancers. The Devadasi system though is still in existence in rudimentary form but with social activism state governments of different states at different times outlawed this ritual such as Andhra Pradesh Devdasis (Prohibition of dedication) Act, 1988, or the Madras Devdasis Act 1947.


History

The practice became significant when one of the great queens of the Somavamshi dynasty decided that in order to honour the gods, certain women who were trained in classical dancing, should be married to the deities. The inception of the practice was one that was imbued with great respect as the women who were chosen to become ''devadasi'' were subject to two great honors: first, because they were literally married to the deity, they were to be treated as if they were the goddess Lakshmi herself, and second, the women were honored because they were considered to be “those great women who (could) control natural human impulses, their five senses and ouldsubmit themselves completely to God.” As they were married to an immortal, the women were considered to be auspicious. Their main duties, in addition to committing to a life without marriage (to a mortal, in the common, popular sense), were to take care of a temple and learn classical Indian dances, usually the Bharatnatyam, which they would perform at temple rituals. Patrons were considered to have higher status for their ability to financially sponsor Devadasis. According to temple worship rules, or Agamas, dance and music are the necessary aspects of daily puja for temple deities. Devadasis were known by various local terms such as ''Basivi'' in
Karnataka Karnataka (; ISO 15919, ISO: , , also known as Karunāḍu) is a States and union territories of India, state in the southwestern region of India. It was Unification of Karnataka, formed on 1 November 1956, with the passage of the States Reor ...
, ''Matangi'' in
Maharashtra Maharashtra (; , abbr. MH or Maha) is a state in the western peninsular region of India occupying a substantial portion of the Deccan Plateau. Maharashtra is the second-most populous state in India and the second-most populous country subdi ...
, and ''Kalavantin'' in Goa and Damaon. Devadasis were also known as ''Jogini'', ''Venkatasani'', ''Nailis'', ''Muralis'' and ''Theradiyan''. Devadasi is sometimes referred to as a
caste Caste is a form of social stratification characterised by endogamy, hereditary transmission of a style of life which often includes an occupation, ritual status in a hierarchy, and customary social interaction and exclusion based on cultur ...
( varna); however some question the accuracy of this usage. "According to the devadasi themselves there exists a devdasi 'way of life' or 'professional ethic' (vritti, murai) but not a devadasi jāti (sub-caste). Later, the office of devdasi became hereditary but it did not confer the right to work without adequate qualification" (Amrit Srinivasan, 1985). In Europe the term ''bayadere'' (from french: bayadère, from pt, balhadeira, literally ''dancer'') was occasionally used.


Ancient and medieval period

The definite origin of the Devadasi tradition is murky due to its early inception. The first known mention of a Devadasi is to a girl named
Amrapali Āmrapālī, also known as "Ambapālika", "Ambapali", or "Amra" was a celebrated '' nagarvadhu'' (royal courtesan) of the republic of Vaishali (located in present-day Bihar) in ancient India around 500 BC. Following the Buddha's teachings, she ...
, who was declared nagarvadhu by the king during the time of the Buddha. Many scholars have noted that the tradition has no basis in scriptures. A.S. Altekar states that, "the custom of association of dancing girls with temples is unknown to ''
Jataka The Jātakas (meaning "Birth Story", "related to a birth") are a voluminous body of literature native to India which mainly concern the previous births of Gautama Buddha in both human and animal form. According to Peter Skilling, this genre is ...
'' literature. It is not mentioned by Greek writers, and the Arthashastra, which describes in detail the life of ''Ganik'', is silent about it." The tradition of female artists in temples is said to have developed during the 3rd century CE. A reference to such dancers is found in the Meghadūta of Kālidāsa, a classical poet and
Sanskrit Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cultural diffusion ...
writer of the
Gupta Empire The Gupta Empire was an ancient Indian empire which existed from the early 4th century CE to late 6th century CE. At its zenith, from approximately 319 to 467 CE, it covered much of the Indian subcontinent. This period is considered as the Gold ...
. The first confirmed reference to a Devadasi was during the Keshari Dynasty in the 6th century CE in
South India South India, also known as Dakshina Bharata or Peninsular India, consists of the peninsular southern part of India. It encompasses the Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Telangana, as well as the union terr ...
. Other sources include the works of authors such as
Xuanzang Xuanzang (, ; 602–664), born Chen Hui / Chen Yi (), also known as Hiuen Tsang, was a 7th-century Chinese Buddhist monk, scholar, traveler, and translator. He is known for the epoch-making contributions to Chinese Buddhism, the travelogue of ...
, a Chinese traveller, and Kalhana, a Kashmiri historian. An inscription dated to the 11th century suggests that there were 400 ''Devadasi'' attached to the Tanjore temple in South India. Similarly, there were 500 ''Devdasi'' at the ''Someshwer'' shrine of
Gujarat Gujarat (, ) is a state along the western coast of India. Its coastline of about is the longest in the country, most of which lies on the Kathiawar peninsula. Gujarat is the fifth-largest Indian state by area, covering some ; and the ninth ...
. Between the 6th and 13th centuries, ''Devadasi'' had a high rank and dignity in society and were exceptionally affluent as they were seen as the protectors of the arts. During this period royal patrons provided them with gifts of land, property, and jewellery.


Devdasis in South India and the Chola Empire

The Chola empire supported the Devdasi system; in Tamil Devdasis were known as ''Devar Adigalar'', ("Deva" means "Divine" and "Adigalar" "Servants", i.e. "Servants of the Divine"). Both male and female Devadasi were dedicated to the service of a temple and its deity. The Chola empire developed the tradition of music and dance employed during temple festivals. Inscriptions indicate that 400 dancers, along with their
guru Guru ( sa, गुरु, IAST: ''guru;'' Pali'': garu'') is a Sanskrit term for a "mentor, guide, expert, or master" of certain knowledge or field. In pan- Indian traditions, a guru is more than a teacher: traditionally, the guru is a reverential ...
s and orchestras, were maintained by the Brihadeesvarar temple,
Thanjavur Thanjavur (), also Tanjore, Pletcher 2010, p. 195 is a city in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. Thanjavur is the 11th biggest city in Tamil Nadu. Thanjavur is an important center of South Indian religion, art, and architecture. Most of the ...
, with munificent grants including the daily disbursement of oil, turmeric, betel leaves, and nuts. Nattuvanars were the male accompanists of the Devadasis during their performances. The Nattuvanars conducted the orchestra while the Devadasi performed her service. Inscriptions indicate that Nattuvanars taught the Chola princess Kuntavai. As the Chola empire expanded in wealth and size, more temples were built throughout the country. Soon other emperors started imitating the Chola empire and adopted Devadasi systems of their own.


Natavalollu

A community of Karnataka living in
Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh (, abbr. AP) is a state in the south-eastern coastal region of India. It is the seventh-largest state by area covering an area of and tenth-most populous state with 49,386,799 inhabitants. It is bordered by Telangana to the ...
, the ''Natavalollu'' were are also known as ''Nattuvaru'', ''Bogam'', ''Bhogam'', and ''Kalavanthulu''. It was customary in the Krishna district of
Tenali Tenali is a city in Guntur district of the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. It is a municipality and the headquarters of Tenali mandal and Tenali revenue division. The city is renowned for art, culture, drama and hence, it is called ''Andhr ...
for each family to give one girl to the Devadasi system. These dancers were known as ''Jakkulas''. As part of a social reform, a written agreement was made to formally end the practice. ''Ādapāpas'' were female attendants to the ladies of the families of Zamindars. Ādapāpas led a life of prostitution as they were not allowed to marry. In some places such as the Krishna and Godāvari districts, Ādapāpas were known as ''Khasa'' or ''Khasavandlu''. ''Natavalollu''/''Kalawants'' were a community that was distributed throughout the state of
Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh (, abbr. AP) is a state in the south-eastern coastal region of India. It is the seventh-largest state by area covering an area of and tenth-most populous state with 49,386,799 inhabitants. It is bordered by Telangana to the ...
. They were also referred to as ''Devadasi'', ''Bogamvallu'', ''Ganikulu'', and ''Sani''. ''Kalavantulu'' means one who is engaged in art. Davesh Soneji writes that, "By the early twenty-first century, large numbers of women in the Kalavanthulu community had converted to Christianity, because this promised them a stable monthly income as members of the new rehabilitation programs of these missions."


Mahari Devadasi of Odisha

In the eastern state of
Odisha Odisha (English: , ), formerly Orissa ( the official name until 2011), is an Indian state located in Eastern India. It is the 8th largest state by area, and the 11th largest by population. The state has the third largest population of ...
Devadasis were known colloquially as Maharis of the
Jagannath temple complex Jagannath ( or, ଜଗନ୍ନାଥ, lit=Lord of the Universe, Jagannātha; formerly en, Juggernaut) is a deity worshipped in regional Hindu traditions in India and Bangladesh as part of a triad along with his brother Balabhadra, and siste ...
. The term ''Devadasi'' referred to the women who danced inside the temple. Devadasi, or mahari, means "those great women who can control natural human impulses, their five senses and can submit themselves completely to God (Vachaspati)." Mahari means ''Mahan Nari'' that is, the woman belonging to God. Sri Chaitanayadev had defined Devadasis as ''Sebayatas'' who served God through dance and music. Pankaj Charan Das, the oldest guru of
Odissi Odissi (), also referred to as Orissi in old literature, is a major ancient Indian classical dance that originated in the temples of Odisha – an eastern coastal state of India. Unlike other parts of India, the Odia Mahari Devadasis were never sexually liberal and were expected to remain celibate upon becoming Devadasis. However, there are records of Odia Mahari Devadasi having relationships and children. It is said that the daughters of the Maharis of the Jagannath temple took to other professions such as nursing in the mid-20th century due to stigma attached to their inherent profession, which may suggest prostitution. The 1956 Orissa Gazette lists nine Devadasis and eleven temple musicians. By 1980, only four Devadasis were left – Harapriya, Kokilaprabha, Parashmani, and Shashimani. By 1998, only Shashimani and Parashmani were still alive. The daily ritualistic dance had stopped, although Shashimani and Parashmani served in a few of the yearly temple rituals such as ''Nabakalebara'', ''Nanda Utsava'', and ''Duara Paka'' during ''Bahuda Jatra''. The last of the Devadasis, Shashimani, died on 19 March 2015, at the age of 92.


Yellamma Cult of Karnataka in South India

In the southern Indian state of Karnataka the Devadasi system was practiced for over 10 centuries. Chief among them was the Yellamma cult. There are many stories about the origin of the Yellamma cult. The most popular story indicates that Renuka was the daughter of a
Brahmin Brahmin (; sa, ब्राह्मण, brāhmaṇa) is a varna as well as a caste within Hindu society. The Brahmins are designated as the priestly class as they serve as priests ( purohit, pandit, or pujari) and religious teachers ( ...
, married the sage Jamadagni, and was the mother of five sons. She used to bring water from the
Malaprabha The Malaprabha River (Kannada ಮಲಪ್ರಭಾ ನದಿ) is a tributary of the Krishna River and flows through the state of Karnataka in India. It rises in the Western Ghats at an elevation of in the state's Belgaum district. The rive ...
river for the sage's worship and rituals. One day at the river she saw a group of youths engaged in water sports and forgot to return home in time for her husband's worship and rituals, which made Jamadagni question her chastity. He ordered their sons one by one to punish their mother, but four of them refused on one pretext or the other. The sage cursed them to become eunuchs and had Renuka beheaded by his fifth son, Parashuram. To everybody's astonishment, Renuka's head multiplied by tens and hundreds and moved to different regions. This miracle inspired her four eunuch sons as well as others to become her followers and worship her head.Yellamma Slaves


Colonial Era


Reformists and abolitionists

Reformists and abolitionists considered the Devadasi a social evil due to their way of life, which seemed like prostitution according to the Western eye. The first anti- Nautch and anti-dedication movement began in 1882. The portrayal of the Devadasi system as "prostitution" was done to advertise the supposed grotesqueness of Indian culture for political means, even though the British colonial authorities officially maintained most brothels in India. In later period the devadasis were equated with prostitutes and their children were again given away to temples. Stigma was attached to a particular caste of devadasis and they were seen as prostitutes. After a certain age they were left to fend for themselves. As the Devadasi were equated with prostitutes, they also became associated with the spread of the
venereal disease Sexually transmitted infections (STIs), also referred to as sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) and the older term venereal diseases, are infections that are spread by sexual activity, especially vaginal intercourse, anal sex, and ora ...
syphilis Syphilis () is a sexually transmitted infection caused by the bacterium '' Treponema pallidum'' subspecies ''pallidum''. The signs and symptoms of syphilis vary depending in which of the four stages it presents (primary, secondary, latent, a ...
in India. During the British colonial period many British soldiers were exposed to venereal diseases in brothels, and Devadasis were misunderstood to be responsible. In an effort to control the spread of venereal disease the British Government mandated that all prostitutes register themselves. Devadasis were required to register, as they were thought to be prostitutes by the British Government. In addition to obligatory registration, the British Government also established institutions known as Lock Hospitals where women were brought in order to be treated for venereal diseases. However, many of the women admitted to these hospitals, including many Devadasi, were identified through the registry and then forcibly brought to the hospitals. A number of these women were confined in the hospitals permanently. Today, Sitavva Joddati of Karnataka helps former Devadasi find a foothold in mainstream society. In 1982 she was made a Devadasi at age seven. In 1997 she began the non-governmental organisation MASS (Mahila Abhivrudhi-Samrakshana Sansthe) in the Belagavi district of Ghataprabha to help women like her escape the Devadasi system and live a life of dignity. Between 1997 and 2017 MASS helped over 4,800 Devadasis reintegrate into mainstream society. In 2018 she received the Padmashri award at age 43.


Evolution of Bharathanatyam

Rukmini Devi Arundale, a theosophist trained in ballet, sought to re-appropriate the Devadasi dance traditions in a context perceived respectably by Indian society which had by then adopted the western morales. She altered the dance repertoire to exclude pieces perceived as erotic in their description of a deity. She also systematized the dance in a way that incorporated the extension and use of space associated with dance traditions such as ballet. The product of this transformation was a new version of Bharatnatyam, which she taught professionally at the ''Kalakshetra'' school she established in Madras. Bharatnatyam is commonly seen as a very ancient dance tradition associated with the Natyasastra. However, Bharatnatyam as it is performed and known today is actually a product of Arundale's recent endeavour to remove the Devadasi dance tradition from the perceived immoral context associated with the Devadasi community and bring it into the upper caste performance milieu. She also adopted a lot of technical elements of Ballet into the modified form of Bharathanatyam. To give the dance form a measure of respect E Krishna Iyer and Rukmini Devi Arundale proposed a resolution at a 1932 meeting of the Madras Music Academy to rename ''Sadiraattam'' as "Bharatanatyam" or Indian dance. Weidman, Pg 120


Legislative Initiatives

The first legal initiative to outlaw the Devadasi system dates back to the 1934 Bombay Devadasi Protection Act. This act pertained to the
Bombay Mumbai (, ; also known as Bombay — List of renamed Indian cities and states#Maharashtra, the official name until 1995) is the capital city of the Indian States and union territories of India, state of Maharashtra and the ''de facto'' fin ...
province as it existed in the
British Raj The British Raj (; from Hindi ''rāj'': kingdom, realm, state, or empire) was the rule of the British Crown on the Indian subcontinent; * * it is also called Crown rule in India, * * * * or Direct rule in India, * Quote: "Mill, who was him ...
. The Bombay Devadasi Protection Act made dedication of women illegal, whether consensual or not. In 1947, the year of Indian independence, the Madras Devadasi (Prevention of Dedication) Act outlawed dedication in the southern Madras Presidency. The Devadasi system was formally outlawed in all of India in 1988, although some Devadasis still practice the system illegally.


Devadasi practices

From the late medieval period until 1910, the Pottukattu or ''tali-tying'' dedication ceremony, was a widely advertised community event requiring the full cooperation of the local religious authorities. It initiated a young girl into the Devadasi profession and was performed in the temple by a priest. In the Hindu tradition, marriage is viewed as the only religious initiation (''diksha'') permissible to women. Thus, the dedication was a symbolic "marriage" of the pubescent girl to the temple's deity. In the ''sadanku'' or puberty ceremonies, the Devadasi initiate began her marriage with an emblem of the god borrowed from the temple as a stand-in bridegroom. From then onward, the Devadasi was considered a ''nitya sumangali'', a woman eternally free from the adversity of widowhood. She would then perform her ritual and artistic duties in the temple. The puberty ceremonies were not only a religious occasion, but also a community feast and celebration in which the local elites also participated.


Odisha

The 1956 Orissa Gazette references Devadasis dances. They had two daily rituals. The ''Bahara Gaaunis'' would dance at the ''Sakaala Dhupa''. After breakfast
Lord Jagannatha Jagannath ( or, ଜଗନ୍ନାଥ, lit=Lord of the Universe, Jagannātha; formerly en, Juggernaut) is a deity worshipped in regional Hindu traditions in India and Bangladesh as part of a triad along with his brother Balabhadra, and sister ...
would give Darshana to the ''bhaktas'' (the devotees). In the main hall, a Devadasi, accompanied by musicians and the Rajaguru (the court guru), would dance standing near the
Garuda Garuda ( Sanskrit: ; Pāli: ; Vedic Sanskrit: गरुळ Garuḷa) is a Hindu demigod and divine creature mentioned in the Hindu, Buddhist and Jain faiths. He is primarily depicted as the mount (''vahana'') of the Hindu god Vishnu. Garu ...
stambha (pillar). They would perform only pure dance, and could be watched by the audience. The ''Bhitara Gaunis'' would sing at the ''Badashinghara'', the main ceremony for ornamenting and dressing the God. At bedtime, Lord Jagannatha would first be served by male Sebayatas, who would fan him and decorate him with flowers. After they left, a ''Bhitara Gaauni'' would then enter the room, stand near the door (Jaya Vijaya), sing Gita Govinda songs, and perhaps perform a ritualistic dance. Later she would come out and announce that the Lord has gone to sleep and the guard would close the main gate.


Social status

A Devadasi was believed to be immune from widowhood and was called ''akhanda saubhagyavati'' ("woman never separated from good fortune"). Since she was wedded to a divine deity, she was supposed to be one of the especially welcome guests at weddings and was regarded as a bearer of good fortune. At weddings, people would receive a string of the ''tali'' (wedding lock) prepared by her, threaded with a few beads from her own necklace. The presence of a Devadasi on any religious occasion in the house of a dvija member was regarded as sacred and she was treated with due respect, and was presented with gifts.


Contemporary statistical data

Indian National Commission for Women, which is mandated to protect and promote the welfare of women, collected information on the prevalence of Devadasi culture in various states. The government of
Odisha Odisha (English: , ), formerly Orissa ( the official name until 2011), is an Indian state located in Eastern India. It is the 8th largest state by area, and the 11th largest by population. The state has the third largest population of ...
stated that the Devadasi system is not prevalent in the state. There is only one Devadasi in Odisha, in a
Puri Puri () is a coastal city and a municipality in the state of Odisha in eastern India. It is the district headquarters of Puri district and is situated on the Bay of Bengal, south of the state capital of Bhubaneswar. It is also known as '' ...
temple. In March 2015, a newspaper report said that the last devadasi, Sashimoni, attached to Jagannath temple had died, bringing the curtain down on the institution. Similarly, the government of
Tamil Nadu Tamil Nadu (; , TN) is a state in southern India. It is the tenth largest Indian state by area and the sixth largest by population. Its capital and largest city is Chennai. Tamil Nadu is the home of the Tamil people, whose Tamil language ...
wrote that this system has been eradicated and there are now no Devadasis in the state.
Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh (, abbr. AP) is a state in the south-eastern coastal region of India. It is the seventh-largest state by area covering an area of and tenth-most populous state with 49,386,799 inhabitants. It is bordered by Telangana to the ...
has identified 16,624 Devadasis within its state. The Karnataka State Women's University found more than 80,000 Devadasi
Karnataka Karnataka (; ISO 15919, ISO: , , also known as Karunāḍu) is a States and union territories of India, state in the southwestern region of India. It was Unification of Karnataka, formed on 1 November 1956, with the passage of the States Reor ...
in 2018; while a government study found 40,600 in 2008. The government of
Maharashtra Maharashtra (; , abbr. MH or Maha) is a state in the western peninsular region of India occupying a substantial portion of the Deccan Plateau. Maharashtra is the second-most populous state in India and the second-most populous country subdi ...
did not provide the information as sought by the commission. However, the state government provided statistical data regarding the survey conducted by them to sanction a "Devadasi Maintenance Allowance". A total of 8,793 applications were received and after conducting a survey 6,314 were rejected and 2,479 Devadasis were declared eligible for the allowance. At the time of sending the information, 1,432 Devadasis were receiving this allowance. According to a study by the Joint Women's Programme of Bangalore for National Commission for Women, girls who have to accept becoming a Devadasi, few reasons were provided, which included dumbness, deafness, poverty, and others. The
life expectancy Life expectancy is a statistical measure of the average time an organism is expected to live, based on the year of its birth, current age, and other demographic factors like sex. The most commonly used measure is life expectancy at birth ...
of Devadasi girls is low compared to the average of the country, it is rare to find Devadasis older than fifty.


In popular culture


See also

* Isai Vellalar * Sacred prostitution * Child prostitution * Nagarvadhu *
Deuki Deuki is an ancient custom practiced in the far western regions of Nepal where a young girl is offered to the local temple. The practice is in decline.Anti-Slavery SocietyChild Hierodulic Servitude in India and Nepal Girls become deukis either beca ...
* Shamakhi dancers *
Gomantak Maratha Samaj Gomantak Maratha Samaj is a Hindu community found in the Indian state of Goa. They are known as ''Nutan Maratha Samaj'' in the Sindhudurg district of Maharashtra and ''Naik Maratha Samaj'' in Maharashtra, Uttara Kannada district of Karnataka, al ...
* Tawaif * Nauch * Chakyars and Nangyarammas of
Kerala Kerala ( ; ) is a state on the Malabar Coast of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, by combining Malayalam-speaking regions of the erstwhile regions of Cochin, Malabar, South Ca ...
* Kanjirottu Yakshi * Muthulaxmi Reddy * Hemalatha Lavanam


References


Further reading

* Altekar, A.S., ''The Position of Women in Hindu Civilization'', Benaras: Motilal Banarasi Das, 1956. * Amrit Srinivasan, "Reform and Revival: The Devadasi and Her Dance", ''Economic and Political Weekly'', Vol. XX, No. 44, 2 November 1985, pp. 1869–1876. * Artal R.O., "Basavis in Peninsular India", ''Journal of Anthropological Society of Bombay'', Vol. IX, No. 2, 1910. * Asha Ramesh, ''Impact of Legislative Prohibition of the Devadasi Practice in Karnataka: A Study'', (Carried out under financial assistance from NORAD), May 1993. * Banerjee, G.R., ''Sex Delinquent Women and Their Rehabilitation'', Bombay: Tata Institute of Social Sciences, 1953. * Basham, A.L., ''The Wonder That Was India'', New York: Grove Press, 1954. * Chakrabothy, K. (2000). ''Women as Devadasis: Origin and Growth of the Devadasi Profession''. Delhi, Deep & Deep Publications. * Chakrapani, C, "Jogin System: A Study in Religion and Society", ''Man in Asia'', Vol. IV, No. II, 1991. * Cornwall, Andrea (2016) Save us from Saviours: Disrupting Development Narratives of the Rescue and Uplift of the 'Third World Woman' in Hemer, Oscar and Thomas Tufte (Eds.) (2016
Voice and Matter: Communication, Development and the Cultural Return
Gothenburg: Nordicom. * Crooke Williams, ''The Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India'', (Third Reprint), Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1968. * Crooke, W., "Prostitution", ''Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics'', Vol. X, Eds., James Hastings and Clark Edinburg, Second Impression, 1930. * Desai Neera, ''Women in India'', Bombay: Vora Publishers, 1957. * Dubois Abbe J.A and Beachampes H.K., ''Hindu Manners, Customs and Ceremonies'', Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1928 * Dumont Louis, ''Religion, Politics and History in India'', The Hague, Mouton and Co., 1970 * Dumont Louis, ''Homo Hierarchius: The Caste System and Its Implications'', Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1972. * Durrani, K.S., ''Religion and Society'', New Delhi: Uppal, 1983. * Fuller Marcus B., ''The Wrongs of Indian Womanhood'', Edinburgh: Oliphant Anderson and Ferrier, 1900. * Goswami, Kali Prasad.,
Devadāsī: dancing damsel
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).


External links


Devadasis - Sinned or Sinned Against?
by Anil Chawla.

- Article on the Yellama Cult of India, 31 July 2000
''Slaves to the goddess of fertility''
by Damian Grammaticas - ''BBC News'', 8 June 2007 in which it's claimed that devadasis are 'sanctified prostitutes'.
Serving the Goddess, The dangerous life of a sacred sex worker
by William Dalrymple. ''The New Yorker'', 4 August 2008

- Article about 1930 video capture at Baroda
Prostitutes of God
VICE Travel Documentary {{Authority control Hindu temple dance Cultural history of India Courtesans by type